1.Poewe W, Seppi K, Tanner C, Halliday G, Brundin P, Volkmann J, et al. Parkinson disease. Nat. Rev. Dis. Primers. 2017;3:17013.
2.Ransohoff R. How neuroinflammation contributes to neurodegeneration. Science. 2016;353:777–83.
3.Sliter DA, Martinez J, Hao L, Chen X, Sun N, Fischer TD, et al. Parkin and PINK1 mitigate STING-induced inflammation. Nature. 2018;561:258–262.
4.Halliday G, Stevens C. Glia: initiators and progressors of pathology in Parkinson’s disease. Mov. Disord. 2011;26:6–17.
5.Shastri A, Bonifati DM, Kishore U. Innate immunity and neuroinflammation. Mediators Inflamm. 2013;2013:342931.
6.Croisier E, Moran LB, Dexter DT, Pearce RK, Graeber MB. Microglial inflammation in the parkinsonian substantia nigra: relationship to alpha-synuclein deposition. J Neuroinflammation. 2005;2:14.
7.Duffy M, Collier T, Patterson J, Kemp C, Luk K, Tansey M, et al. Lewy body-like alpha-synuclein inclusions trigger reactive microgliosis prior to nigral degeneration. J. Neuroinflammation. 2018;15:129.
8.Booth HDE, Hirst WD, Wade-Martins R. The Role of Astrocyte Dysfunction in Parkinson’s Disease Pathogenesis. Trends Neurosci. 2017;40:358–370.
9.Miklossy J, Doudet D, Schwab C, Yu S, McGeer E, McGeer P. Role of ICAM–1 in persisting inflammation in Parkinson disease and MPTP monkeys. Exp. Neurol. 2006;197:275–83.
10.Sofroniew M, Vinters H. Astrocytes: biology and pathology. Acta Neuropathol. 2010;119:7–35.
11.Saijo K, Winner B, Carson CT, Collier JG, Boyer L, Rosenfeld MG, et al. A Nurr1/CoREST pathway in microglia and astrocytes protects dopaminergic neurons from inflammation-induced death. Cell. 2009;137:47–59.
12.Hwang J, Zheng L, Ock J, Lee M, Kim S, Lee H, et al. Inhibition of glial inflammatory activation and neurotoxicity by tricyclic antidepressants. Neuropharmacology. 2008;55:826–34.
13.Mansouri M, Naghizadeh B, Ghorbanzadeh B, Alboghobeish S, Amirgholami N, Houshmand G, et al. Venlafaxine prevents morphine antinociceptive tolerance: The role of neuroinflammation and the l-arginine-nitric oxide pathway. Exp. Neurol. 2018;303:134–141.
14.Vollmar P, Haghikia A, Dermietzel R, Faustmann PM. Venlafaxine exhibits an anti-inflammatory effect in an inflammatory co-culture model. Int. J. Neuropsychopharmacol. 2008;11:111–7.
15.Zhao Y, Pan Y, Tang M, Lin W. Blocking p38 Signaling Reduces the Activation of Pro-inflammatory Cytokines and the Phosphorylation of p38 in the Habenula and Reverses Depressive-Like Behaviors Induced by Neuroinflammation. Front Pharmacol. 2018;9:511.
16.Chung Y, Kim S, Jin B. Paroxetine prevents loss of nigrostriatal dopaminergic neurons by inhibiting brain inflammation and oxidative stress in an experimental model of Parkinson’s disease. J. Immunol. 2010;185:1230–7.
17.Meredith GE, Sonsalla PK, Chesselet MF. Animal models of Parkinson’s disease progression. Acta Neuropathol. 2008;115:385–98.
18.Gao H, Zhang F, Zhou H, Kam W, Wilson B, Hong J. Neuroinflammation and α-synuclein dysfunction potentiate each other, driving chronic progression of neurodegeneration in a mouse model of Parkinson’s disease. Environ. Health Perspect. 2011;119:807–14.
19.Liu RP, Zou M, Wang JY, Zhu JJ, Lai JM, Zhou LL, et al. Paroxetine ameliorates lipopolysaccharide-induced microglia activation via differential regulation of MAPK signaling. J. Neuroinflammation. 2014;11:47.
20.McCarthy KD. Preparation of separate astroglial and oligodendroglial cell cultures from rat cerebral tissue. J. Cell Biol. 1980;85:890–902.
21.Shen Y, Qin H, Chen J, Mou L, He Y, Yan Y, et al. Postnatal activation of TLR4 in astrocytes promotes excitatory synaptogenesis in hippocampal neurons. J. Cell Biol. 2016;215:719–734.
22.Zhu JH, Lei XG. Double null of selenium-glutathione peroxidase–1 and copper, zinc-superoxide dismutase enhances resistance of mouse primary hepatocytes to acetaminophen toxicity. Exp. Biol. Med. (Maywood). 2006;231:545–52.
23.Wilms H, Sievers J, Rickert U, Rostami-Yazdi M, Mrowietz U, Lucius R. Dimethylfumarate inhibits microglial and astrocytic inflammation by suppressing the synthesis of nitric oxide, IL–1beta, TNF-alpha and IL–6 in an in-vitro model of brain inflammation. J. Neuroinflammation. 2010;7:30.
24.Zhu JH, Chen CL, Flavahan S, Harr J, Su B, Flavahan NA. Cyclic stretch stimulates vascular smooth muscle cell alignment by redox-dependent activation of Notch3. Am. J. Physiol. Heart Circ. Physiol. 2011;300:H1770–80.
25.Wang Q, Liu Y, Zhou J. Neuroinflammation in Parkinson’s disease and its potential as therapeutic target. Transl. Neurodegener. 2015;4:19.
26.Tynan RJ, Weidenhofer J, Hinwood M, Cairns MJ, Day TA, Walker FR. A comparative examination of the anti-inflammatory effects of SSRI and SNRI antidepressants on LPS stimulated microglia. Brain Behav. Immun. 2012;26:469–79.
27.Glass CK, Saijo K, Winner B, Marchetto MC, Gage FH. Mechanisms underlying inflammation in neurodegeneration. Cell. 2010;140:918–34.
28.Sheng W, Zong Y, Mohammad A, Ajit D, Cui J, Han D, et al. Pro-inflammatory cytokines and lipopolysaccharide induce changes in cell morphology, and upregulation of ERK1/2, iNOS and sPLA₂-IIA expression in astrocytes and microglia. J. Neuroinflammation. 2011;8:121.
29.Allaman I, Fiumelli H, Magistretti P, Martin J. Fluoxetine regulates the expression of neurotrophic/growth factors and glucose metabolism in astrocytes. Psychopharmacology (Berl.). 2011;216:75–84.
30.Trang T, Beggs S, Wan X, Salter M. P2X4-receptor-mediated synthesis and release of brain-derived neurotrophic factor in microglia is dependent on calcium and p38-mitogen-activated protein kinase activation. J. Neurosci. 2009;29:3518–28.
31.Zhang X, Zeng L, Yu T, Xu Y, Pu S, Du D, et al. Positive feedback loop of autocrine BDNF from microglia causes prolonged microglia activation. Cell Physiol. Biochem. 2014;34:715–23.
32.Henn A, Lund S, Hedtjarn M, Schrattenholz A, Porzgen P, Leist M. The suitability of BV2 cells as alternative model system for primary microglia cultures or for animal experiments examining brain inflammation. Altex. 2009;26:83–94.
33.Bennett ML, Bennett FC, Liddelow SA, Ajami B, Zamanian JL, Fernhoff NB, et al. New tools for studying microglia in the mouse and human CNS. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 2016;113:E1738–46.
34.Cahoy JD, Emery B, Kaushal A, Foo LC, Zamanian JL, Christopherson KS, et al. A transcriptome database for astrocytes, neurons, and oligodendrocytes: a new resource for understanding brain development and function. J. Neurosci. 2008;28:264–78.
35.Zhang Y, Sloan SA, Clarke LE, Caneda C, Plaza CA, Blumenthal PD, et al. Purification and Characterization of Progenitor and Mature Human Astrocytes Reveals Transcriptional and Functional Differences with Mouse. Neuron. 2016;89:37–53.
36.Colombo E, Farina C. Astrocytes: Key Regulators of Neuroinflammation. Trends Immunol. 2016;37:608–620.