Table 1: Definition and data sources of the indicators of women empowerment
Variables
|
Definition
|
ECONOMIC EMPOWERMENT
|
Financial account
|
The percentage of female respondents 15 years and above, who report having their own account or together with someone else at a bank or another type of financial institution. This data was obtained from the World Bank Databank Gender Statistics [86], based on the Global Findex database
|
Education
|
The percentage of female population 25 years and older who attained or completed secondary education. This data was obtained from the World Bank Databank Gender Statistics [82], based on the Global Findex database
|
Food insecurity
|
The percentage of females who have experienced food insecurity at moderate and severe levels during the 12 months reference period. This information was obtained from the 2014-15 Food Insecurity Experience Scale survey [83].
|
Living in slums
|
The proportion of women 15-49 years old who live in households that meet at least one of 5 criteria: (1) lack of access to improved water source, (2) lack of access to improved sanitation facilities, (3) lack of sufficient living area, (4) lack of housing durability and (5) lack of security of tenure. This was obtained from the DHS of 60 developing countries as reported in the UN Women Report [84].
|
Below 50% of median income
|
The percentage of females living below 50% of the median income in the country. Income is defined as total monetary payments from labor, property, and social or private transfers. It also includes total value of non-monetary goods and services received from labor and social or private transfers, excluding social transfers in kind such as universal health insurance, universal education benefits, and near cash benefits from public housing. Data was derived from the most recent Luxembourg Income Study datasets [85].
|
WOMEN’S DECISION-MAKING ABILITY
|
Family visits
|
The percentage of currently married women aged 15-49 years who say that they alone or jointly have the final say in visits to family, relatives, and friends [82].
|
Household purchase decisions
|
The percentage of currently married women aged 15-49 years who say that they alone or jointly have the final say in making major household purchases [82].
|
Own health care
|
The percentage of currently married women aged 15-49 years who say that they alone or jointly have the final say in own health care [82].
|
Sexual health
|
The proportion of women ages 15-49 years (married or in union) who can say no to sexual intercourse with their husband or partner if they do not want, decide on use of contraception, and decide on their reproductive health care. Only women who provide a “yes” answer to all three components are considered as women who “make her own decisions regarding sexual and reproductive health” [82].
|
CONTROL OF VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN
|
Attitude towards wife beating
|
The percentage of women aged 15-49 years who believe a husband/partner is justified in hitting or beating his wife/partner for any of the following five reasons: argues with him, refuses to have sex, burns the food, goes out without telling him, or when she neglects the children [82].
|
Exposure to physical violence
|
The percentage of ever partnered women aged 15-49 years who were subjected to physical violence, sexual violence or both by a current or former intimate partner in the last 12 months [82]..
|
Female homicide
|
Unlawful death inflicted upon a female with the intent to cause death or serious injury. This information was extracted from statistics by UN Office on Drugs and Crime based on national statistical systems through the annual United Nations Survey on Crime Trends and Operations of Criminal Justice Systems. The statistics reported numbers per 100,000 population [86].
|
Table 2: Description of indicators and ECC prevalence among countries included in the study
Variables
|
Countries with available data
(n)
|
Mean (SD)
|
Economic empowerment indicators
|
Financial account
|
154
|
47.8 (31.6)
|
Education
|
76
|
50.9 (26.4)
|
Food insecurity
|
137
|
29.8 (23.2)
|
Living in slums (%)
|
60
|
55.7 (16.6)
|
Below 50% of median income
|
39
|
14.0 (55.6)
|
|
|
|
Women’s Decision-making indicators: Percentage of women participating in decisions related to:
|
Family visits
|
57
|
71.3 (17.9)
|
Household purchase decisions
|
58
|
62.9 (19.3)
|
Own health care
|
58
|
66.1 (21.7)
|
Sexual health
|
44
|
47.6 (19.4)
|
Exposure to violence
|
Attitude towards wife beating
|
95
|
33.2 (24.4)
|
Exposure to physical violence
|
68
|
14.9 (11.4)
|
Female homicide
|
175
|
2.9 (2.9)
|
ECC prevalence
|
Among 0-2 year-olds
|
39
|
23.8 (14.8)
|
Among 3-5 year-olds
|
86
|
57.3 (22.4)
|
Table 3: Relationship between economic empowerment of women and global ECC prevalence, controlling for country economic level
Variables
|
Prevalence of ECC in 0-2 years old
|
Prevalence of ECC in 3-5 years old
|
Countries with available data
(n)
|
B (95% CI)
|
η2
|
Countries with available data
(n)
|
B (95% CI)
|
η2
|
Financial account
|
37a
|
0.05 (-0.20, 0.30)
|
0.005
|
82f
|
-0.25 (-0.50, 0.0001)
|
0.05
|
Education
|
15b
|
0.37 (-0.03, 0.78)
|
0.27
|
28g
|
0.18 (-0.16, 0.52)
|
0.05
|
Food insecurity
|
34c
|
-0.15 (-0.58, 0.29)
|
0.02
|
73h
|
-0.10 (-0.47, 0.27)
|
0.004
|
Living in slums
|
11d
|
0.16 (-0.52, 0.84)
|
0.04
|
19i
|
-0.25 (-0.93, 0.43)
|
0.04
|
Below 50% of median income
|
17e
|
-0.23 (-2.03, 1.57)
|
0.006
|
32j
|
1.82 (0.12, 3.52)*
|
0.15
|
B: Regression estimates adjusted for country income, CI: confidence interval, η2: partial eta squared, *: statistically significant at P< 0.05
Number of countries with different economic levels included in models, LIC: low-income countries, LMIC: low middle-income countries, HMIC: high middle-income countries, HIC: high-income countries:
a: LIC= 2, LMIC= 11, HMIC= 11, HIC= 15, b: LIC= 2, LMIC= 8, HMIC= 5, HIC= 0, c: LIC= 2, LMIC= 11, HMIC= 7, HIC= 14, d: LIC= 2, LMIC= 7, HMIC= 2, HIC= 0, e: LIC= 0, LMIC= 2, HMIC= 6, HIC= 9
f: LIC= 5, LMIC= 19, HMIC= 25, HIC= 33, g: LIC= 6, LMIC= 13, HMIC= 9, HIC= 0, h: LIC= 5, LMIC= 18, HMIC= 20, HIC= 30, i: LIC= 5, LMIC= 11, HMIC= 3, HIC= 0, j: LIC= 0, LMIC= 2, HMIC= 9, HIC= 21
Table 4: Relationship between decision-making ability of women and global ECC prevalence, controlling for country economic level
Variables
|
Prevalence of ECC 0-2 years old
|
Prevalence of ECC 3-5 years old
|
Countries with available data
(n)
|
B (95% CI)
|
η2
|
Countries with available data
(n)
|
B (95% CI)
|
η2
|
Family visits
|
9a
|
0.90 (-0.20, 2.02)
|
0.47
|
19c
|
0.67 (0.03, 1.32)*
|
0.25
|
Household purchase decisions
|
9a
|
0.80 (-0.20, 1.80)
|
0.46
|
19c
|
0.61 (-0.0004, 1.23)
|
0.23
|
Own health care decisions
|
9a
|
0.85 (0.03, 1.67)*
|
0.59
|
19c
|
0.49 (-0.09, 1.07)
|
0.18
|
Sexual health
|
5b
|
1.69 (-2.67, 6.05)
|
0.96
|
13d
|
-0.04 (-1.23, 1.14)
|
0.001
|
B: Regression estimates adjusted for country income, CI: confidence interval, η2: partial eta squared, *: statistically significant at P< 0.05
Number of countries with different economic levels included in models, LIC: low-income countries, LMIC: low middle-income countries, HMIC: high middle-income countries, HIC: high-income countries:
a: LIC= 2, LMIC= 5, HMIC= 2, HIC= 0, b: LIC= 2, LMIC= 2, HMIC= 1, HIC= 0, c: LIC= 6, LMIC= 9, HMIC= 4, HIC= 0, d: LIC= 6, LMIC= 5, HMIC= 2, HIC= 0
Table 5: Relationship between women exposure to violence, suicide and global ECC prevalence after controlling for country economic level
Variables
|
Prevalence of ECC 0-2 years old
|
Prevalence of ECC 3-5 years old
|
Countries with available data
(n)
|
B (95% CI)
|
η2
|
Countries with available data
(n)
|
B (95% CI)
|
η2
|
Exposure to violence
|
Attitude toward wife beating
|
15a
|
0.13 (-0.68, 0.93)
|
0.01
|
33d
|
0.05 (-0.40, 0.50)
|
0.002
|
Exposure to physical violence
|
14b
|
0.16 (-2.84, 3.16)
|
0.002
|
34e
|
-0.52 (-1.32, 0.29)
|
0.06
|
Female homicide
|
39c
|
0.19 (-1.50, 1.89)
|
0.002
|
82f
|
0.15 (-1.63, 1.94)
|
< 0.0001
|
B: Regression estimates adjusted for country income, CI: confidence interval, η2: partial eta squared, *: statistically significant at P< 0.05
Number of countries with different economic levels included in models, LIC: low-income countries, LMIC: low middle-income countries, HMIC: high middle-income countries, HIC: high-income countries:
a: LIC= 2, LMIC= 8, HMIC= 5, HIC= 0, b: LIC= 2, LMIC= 3, HMIC= 2, HIC= 7, c: LIC= 2, LMIC= 11, HMIC= 11, HIC= 15
d: LIC= 6, LMIC= 15, HMIC= 11, HIC= 1, e: LIC= 5, LMIC= 7, HMIC= 5, HIC= 17, f: LIC= 6, LMIC= 20, HMIC= 23, HIC= 33