Study sites
Bangladesh is a maritime country, blessed with the Bay of Bengal, which is around 1.5 times bigger than the area on the land. The coastal zone occupies an area of approximately 36,000 sq. km, almost 25 percent of the total land surface of the country. The continental shelf is roughly 37000 sq. km and has an area of around 37000 sq. km. Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) has roughly 1,64,000 sq. km (Begum, 2013). Almost all form of activities in the economy are connected to this maritime field. So, one of the latest and very prospective avenues is the maritime sector for the development of the country.
Data collection
Identification of the related research was part of the initial phase. We developed the following requirements for our database to perform a systematic literature review:
Scopus, Web of Science, Google Scholar, PubMed, Dimension
–English-language journal articles
–Blue economy-related journals, book chapters, conference proceedings
–Available on the internet (No time limitation)
Data was collected using keywords “Blue Economy concept” “Sustainable Blue Economy” “Blue Economy in Bangladesh” or “Prospect of Blue Economy in Bangladesh” or “Opportunities of Blue Economy” or “Opportunities of Blue Economy in Bangladesh” or “Risks towards successful Blue Economy” or “Risks towards successful Blue Economy in Bangladesh” or “Threats towards successful Blue Economy” or “Threats towards successful Blue Economy in Bangladesh” or “Sustainable development pathways for the blue economy” or “Recommendation for sustainable blue economic growth” or “Recommendation for sustainable blue economic growth in Bangladesh”.
Prospect of blue economy in Bangladesh
Being a maritime country, Bangladesh gained a vast area of the ocean which can play a dynamic role in the national economic development and well-being of its future generations. Since the land resources are depleting rapidly, people will depend on the ocean resources for livelihood in the future. Bangladesh has a huge prospect of the blue economy, that’s why the government giving priority to the collaboration and formulation of ocean-related policies and plans. Bangladesh can fulfill the blue economic growth by marine fisheries and aquaculture, minerals and mining, oceanic renewable energy, increasing maritime trade, shipping, and transport, tourism, education and research on maritime affairs, marine spatial planning, etc. These maritime activities will increase job opportunities, reduce poverty, develop the national economy.
Opportunities of blue economy in Bangladesh
Approximately half of the world's population, most of its major cities and industries, along with vital supply chains, tend to be centered along the coast to ensure access to transport routes and to ensure steady flows of energy and goods. Worldwide, different countries make significant income from the blue economy sectors and flourish their national GDP (Table 1).
Table 1. Selected estimates of value of ocean-based industries, by country, region and world.
|
Country
|
Author
|
Date of study
|
Date of data
|
Contribution of ocean sectors to GDP or GVA
|
% of GDP or GVA
|
Employment (total FTE)
|
China (People’s
Republic of)
|
APEC
|
2014
|
2012
|
|
9.6% GDP
|
=
|
Jiang et. al.
|
2014
|
2000-11
|
|
13.83% GDP
|
=
|
CMIEN
|
2013
|
2012
|
CNY 5 0087 tn GDP
|
9.6% GDP
|
34 0240 000
|
Zhao, Hynes and He
|
2013
|
2010
|
CNY 239.09 bn GVA
|
4.3% GDP
|
9 000 000
|
Dubai
|
Gujarat Maritime Board
|
2014
|
2013
|
|
4.6% GDP
|
=
|
France
|
Kalaydjian et al.
|
2009
|
2007
|
EUR 28 bn GVA
|
1.4% GDP
|
484 548
|
Kalaydjian et al.
|
2011
|
2009
|
EUR 26122 bn GVA
|
2.5% GDP
|
460163
|
Kalaydjian et al.
|
2014
|
2012
|
EUR 30 252 bn GVA
|
2.75% GDP
|
460396
|
Hong Kong (China)
|
Gujarat Maritime Board
|
2014
|
2013
|
|
25% GDP
|
=
|
Iceland
|
Sigfusson and Gestsson
|
2012
|
2010
|
|
26% GDP
|
ca. 30 000
|
Ireland
|
Vega, Hynes and O’Toole
|
2015
|
2012
|
EUR 1.3 bn GVA
|
0.7% GDP
|
17 425
|
Vega, Hynes and Coriess
|
2013
|
2010
|
EUR 1.2 bn GVA
|
0.7% GDP
|
16614
|
Japan
|
Nomura Research Institute
|
2009
|
2005
|
JPY7 863 bn GVA
|
1.6% GDP
|
981 234
|
Korea
|
APEC
|
2014
|
2005
|
|
8% GDP
|
=
|
Hwang et al.
|
2011
|
2008
|
KRW13 435 bn GVA
|
4.9% GDP
|
919314
|
Netherlands
|
Maritime by Holland
|
2014
|
2012
|
EUR 21 bn GVA
|
3.3% GNP
|
224 000
|
New Zealand
|
Statistics New Zealand
|
2006
|
1997-2002
|
NZD 3.3 bn GVA
|
2.9% GDP
|
21 000
|
Portugal
|
DGPM
|
2013
|
2010
|
|
2.5% GVA
|
=
|
Singapore
|
MPA - Maritime Singapore
|
2014
|
|
|
7% GDP
|
=
|
United Kingdom
|
Pugh
|
2008
|
2005-06
|
GBP 46 041 bn GVA
|
4.2% GDP
|
890 416
|
United States
|
Kildow et al.
|
2014
|
2010
|
USD 258 bn GDP
|
4.4% GDP
|
2.8 million
|
Europe
|
Ecorys
|
2012
|
2011
|
EUR 495 bn GVA
|
|
5.6 million
|
|
|
|
USD 2.5 trillion
|
|
=
|
Worldwide
|
Hoegh-Guldberg et al.
|
2015
|
2011-14
|
‘gross marine product"
|
3.2% GDP
|
=
|
Notes: = data not available. The German study focuses only on maritime technology and ocean engineering. FTE = full-time equivalent. The value added of Iceland and the China Marine Statistical Yearbook include also indirect effects on the economy. Source: Individual reports by country and region.
|
In Bangladesh, about 30 million people connected with marine resources and ocean-related works for their livelihood. In the blue economy sectors, Bangladesh has a lot of potential. Country aimed to be developed country by the year 2041 and it would be possible if we can use ocean resources properly. Few statistics and a birds-eye overview of marine sectors will prove the above statement. Contribution (from 2010-2015) of major blue economic sectors in Bangladesh is tabulated in Table 2.
Table 2. Financial evaluation of major blue economics sectors in Bangladesh from 2010 to 2015 (million US$).
|
Economic Sector
|
2010
|
2011
|
2012
|
2013
|
2014
|
2015
|
Marine fisheries
|
843.75
|
949.48
|
1107.42
|
1231.06
|
1384.77
|
1475.66
|
Oil
|
21.90
|
23.84
|
26.82
|
28.77
|
29.35
|
34.05
|
Gas
|
948.35
|
956.30
|
1041.35
|
1127.73
|
1158.13
|
1305.42
|
Sea salt
|
119.25
|
123.48
|
160.90
|
206.00
|
212.35
|
214.84
|
Sand, Mineral and Coals
|
735.18
|
944.39
|
1183.79
|
1452.46
|
1644.08
|
1893.14
|
Water Transport
|
1215.14
|
1330.36
|
1450.21
|
1606.10
|
1682.31
|
1816.67
|
Trade & Shipping
|
31390.15
|
36178.04
|
41728.94
|
47156.44
|
52078.80
|
58466.90
|
Sources: Data adopted from Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics (BBS, 2017; Hussain et al. 2017)
|
Maritime shipping and transportation
Shipping is the safest, most secure, efficient, and environmentally sound transportation system that is regarded as the lifeblood of the global economy. 90% global commerce, 80% global trade by volume, and 70% by value, are being transported by sea (Alam, 2018).
The shipping sector is developing very fast in Bangladesh because of its geographic location. The Bay of Bengal is a blessing for Bangladesh (Hung et al. 2010). Bangladesh earning 80 billion dollars from import-export and thus way 10-15% of shipping trade is increasing every year (Uddin et al. 2017). These growth percent percentages are higher than average in terms of the Bangladeshi national economy (Alam, 2014). In 2011, during the global economic crisis, global trade increased by 4%. By 2030, container traffic is expected to triple. The top import and export partners were China, India, Europe, Indonesia, Singapore, and Thailand (World Bank, 2017). Shipping providing facilities to landlocked South Asian countries and connecting South, Southeast, and East Asia together as Indo-Pacific Corridor.
Bangladesh earned about US$ 67 billion (2013-14) from exported and imported goods transported by 2500 ships from other countries are docked in the country's ports. Moreover, US$ 95 billion was paid by importers, exporters, and buyers pay shipping firms for freight and associated costs, airlines, and freight operators to carry goods in and out of Bangladesh during the last ten year (Alam, 2014). In 2012, inland and coastal networks transported 231.5 million passengers and 32.6 million Mt of freight (Alam, 2015). Over the last ten years, the annual rate of increase in imports was 15.79% and the export growth rate was 15.43%. According to these estimates, freight value is predicted to be around USD 435 billion over the next ten years. To keep USD 400 billion in Bangladesh over the next ten years, the country needs to add more ships to its current fleet and freight operators.
Maritime transport plays a dynamic role in Bangladeshi social-economic prospects that mostly rely on their ability to connect to the rest of the world and access international markets.
Coastal shipping from India, Sri Lanka, Singapore, Malaysia, Thailand, and Myanmar ports can play a great role to achieve 5-6% long-term annual growth for the coming decade. Transshipment at Singapore, Kelang, Colombo, and other ports could be cost-effective, time-saving, and favorable for employment growth.
Port facilities
Ports play a strategic role in the national trade and economy. For maritime economic activities, ports are critical crystallization sites. Port facilities are needed for cruise ships, coastal shipping, foreign shipping, passenger ferries, fishing, marine mineral mining, oil drilling, and offshore or maritime surveillance (Alam, 2018).
Bangladesh's economy largely depends on international trade. Ports transporting 94% of the foreign trade. almost 3000 foreign ships visit Bangladeshi ports every year for carrying cargo. Bangladeshi ports are not located adjacent to main international shipping lanes and have a draft restriction. Have no recommended route or international ship traffic separation scheme. Consequently, all these constraints create an adverse situation for foreign ships coming to Bangladesh (Uddin et al. 2017).
Currently, there are only two ports in Bangladesh, including Chittagong Port and Mongla Port to support this huge trade volume. Bangladeshi ports, along with Kolkata and Chennai, serve as a hub within the Bay of Bengal. Facilities and infrastructure development of ports will increase the chances of being a central focus of the country’s future ocean economy. Matarbari port, Payra Port, Sonadia Deep Sea Port, Kutubdia FSRU LPG, and LNG Terminal and Bay terminal would be the suitable sites to develop seaports with more capabilities and modern handling equipment (Saha and Alam, 2018). This will open a new window in maritime trade and commerce. The establishment of new seaports will reduce exporting times and earn a steady flow of revenue for the country.
Shipbuilding
Shipbuilding is regarded as the important sector that is a vital component of the Blue Economy since its income generation feature (Table 3). Marine engineering consists of the construction, repair, and boats, ships, fishing vessels, yachts, and floating structures need routine maintenance. In Bangladesh, there are currently over 300 shipyards and workshops. Almost 100% requirement of inland vessels, fast patrol boats, dredging barges, passenger vessels, landing craft, tug, supply barges, deck loading barges, speed boat, cargo coasters, troop-carrying vessels, hydrographic survey vessels, survey boat, pilot boats, water taxi, pontoons, and water taxi are being built by these yards (Alam, 2018). Currently, shipbuilding yards are building 10,000 DWT seagoing ships for exportation and are projected to advance their capabilities to 25000 DWT. Annually, approximately 15 ships are undergoing repairs in the drydocks of Bangladesh and contribute to earning foreign exchange.
Table 3. Annual gross value added from Bangladesh’s blue economy (Sources: World Bank, 2018).
|
Ocean economy industry/service (Nominal USD Millions)
|
2009-10
|
2010-11
|
2011-12
|
2012-13
|
2013-14
|
2014-15
|
Marine capture fisheries
|
664.00
|
777.00
|
786.23
|
907.49
|
1,037.49
|
1,167.79
|
Marine aquaculture and shell fish farming (shrimps and crabs)
|
78.65
|
92.48
|
99.76
|
122.05
|
144.99
|
163.20
|
Sea salt production
|
123.20
|
124.11
|
145.51
|
184.35
|
195.45
|
197.88
|
Crude petroleum extraction
|
22.42
|
23.65
|
23.69
|
25.16
|
26.40
|
30.55
|
Natural gas (liquid) extraction
|
971.13
|
948.62
|
919.94
|
986.25
|
1,041.87
|
1,174.58
|
Maritime freight transportation
|
307.90
|
319.55
|
295.81
|
300.33
|
327.15
|
375.58
|
Maritime passenger transportation
|
617.61
|
659.27
|
606.66
|
663.14
|
720.69
|
788.35
|
Port and harbor operations
|
104.95
|
103.29
|
135.57
|
145.32
|
172.37
|
202.17
|
Shipbuilding and repairing
|
110.32
|
114.77
|
106.68
|
109.58
|
108.59
|
387.06
|
Ship breaking
|
127.39
|
130.80
|
134.27
|
136.83
|
138.31
|
138.21
|
Shipbreaking or recycling
Bangladesh recycles 300 ships every year, which is 24% of the total scrapped ships in the world (MOI, 2019). Bangladesh ranked 2nd considering the quantity of ships while rated third in terms of gross tonnage. Bangladesh has 105 yards and around 60-70 percent of the yards are in operation (Alam et al. 2019). As a result, Bangladesh is considered a graveyard of the scrap ships of the world that producing continuous capital for Bangladesh (Table 3).
Around 70-75 percent of scrap steel used in steel and re-rolling mills comes from the ship recycling industry. As a result, this industry is harnessing a large amount of foreign currency. Furthermore, this industry met the rising demand for furniture, all forms of household fittings, boilers, life-saving vessels, and generators, as well as creating jobs.
Ship recycling industries are the main polluter of the coastal environment. Ship recycling should be promoted with all eco-friendly infrastructure and compliance with an international agreement. Bangladesh government launched steps to control the pollution from ship recycling. Ship recycling yard has to take clearance from Environment Department before recycling a ship (Rabbi and Rahman, 2017).
Coastal and marine tourism
Tourism is a huge global business that creates new jobs and reduces poverty since tourism is human-resource intensive. Furthermore, every work created in the core industry generates one and a half jobs in the tourism-related economy. International tourism has increased from 25 million in 1950 to 1.035 million in 2012, with the UNWTO estimating more growth of 3-4% in 2013, with a projection of 1.8 billion for 2030. In 2016, tourism and leisure contributed just over 10 billion US dollars to national GDP and more than 2 million direct and indirect jobs (WTTC, 2017).
According to the United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO), approximately one of every two tourists visited the seaside (UNWTO, 2013). Rising incomes, low transport cost makes the coastal and ocean tourism more popular. Cruise tourism is getting popular day by day. Between 1970 and 2005 the number of passengers increased 24-fold to 16 million by 2011. Annual passenger growth rates average about 7.5 percent, with annual passenger expenses expected to be around US$ 18 billion.
Marine and coastal tourism important to Bangladesh (one of the developing countries) since it offers 5% of world GDP and contributes to 6-7% of total employment globally. In 2012, tourism support 9% of Global GDP, 9 percent of global jobs were created, and US$ 1.3 trillion, or 6% of global export earnings, were produced (Alam, 2018). Bangladesh can be the major tourist attraction site since it has Cox’s Bazar (longest unbroken sea beach), St. Martin’s Island (Coral Island), and Sundarbans (largest single tract mangrove forest). Tourism can create employment for local communities through business facilities (hotel, restaurant or other entertainment industry, etc.). Tourism will be sustainable if it focuses on the other factors of the environment (Fig. 9).
In Bangladesh, coastal and marine tourism is not developed like other south Asian countries (e.g., India, Sri Lanka, and Maldives). Recreational fishing is very important but the facilities in Bangladesh are limited (Hassan et al. 2014). In the country's coastal waters, there is no recreational fishing (Humayun et al. 2016). Recreational fishing is very small, according to the United Nations, with imports of fishing rods, reels, hooks, and other tackle totaling just US$127,180 in 2013 (United Nations Comtrade Database, 2017).
Diverse water sports have been introduced as recreational activities, the construction and maintenance of seaworthy pleasure boats, and the requisite infrastructure support, including marina ports, could promote the rise in coastal tourism. About 100 hotels and motels were recorded in Cox's Bazar where more than 10,000 people work (Bari, 2017).
Construction of artificial islands
Bangladesh should follow an effective strategy for the creation of new islands formed artificially in the territorial sea and the EEZ authorized by the 1982 UNCLOS to minimize demographic pressure on land. By planting salt-tolerant/mangrove plants, the survival of the current 75 marine islands or newly developed islands must be ensured. Agricultural production on sandy soils through the enhancement of existing crops must be adopted. Seawater desalination for the use of freshwater for agriculture, irrigation, commercial use for inhabitants, and marine/offshore island animals may be considered.
Marine fisheries
Almost 350 million people are working with marine fisheries worldwide (UN, 2012). Globally, 15.7% of animal protein demand meet by fish. Fish's contribution to the supply of animal-based protein in Bangladesh 52%, Indonesia 68%, Malaysia 61%, Sri Lanka 65%, and Thailand 52%. The global catch of fish was 4 million tonnes in 1900, 16.7 million tonnes in 1950, 62 million tonnes in 1980, and 86.7 million tonnes in 2000 but it got stuck. In 2009 marine capture production was 79 million tonnes. Overall catch risks decline with 75% of stocks fully exploited or depleted. Almost 90% of fishermen living in the developing countries earned US$ 25 billion by fish trading.
Bangladesh is blessed with a Bay of Bengal rich wide range of shrimp, fish, mollusks, crabs, mammals, seaweeds, and other marine creatures. There are about 740 species of fish found in the EEZ of Bangladesh (Habib and Islam, 2020). Total fish production of Bangladesh was reported 3.68 million tonnes, of which 1.0 million tonnes (28%) come from capture fisheries, 2.2 million tonnes (56%) from aquaculture, and 0.6 million tonnes from marine fisheries (16 percent). It contributes 3.69% GDP of the nation (DoF, 2016). Artisanal small-scale fishery contributes 86.8% while trawl fishing (considered as a large industrial fishery) that accounts for 14.2% of total marine output (DoF, 2016). Last 5-year fish production from different sources tabulated in Table 4.
Table 4. Last 5 years’ fish production.
|
Year
|
Source-wise production (MT)
|
Total
|
Inland open
|
Closed
|
Marine
|
2013-2014
|
1054585
|
1460769
|
546333
|
3061687
|
2014-2015
|
1029937
|
1351979
|
517282
|
2899198
|
2015-2016
|
1123925
|
1062801
|
514644
|
2701370
|
2016-2017
|
1060181
|
1005542
|
497573
|
2563296
|
2017-2018
|
10067761
|
955812
|
634746
|
|
Sources: MoF&LS
|
The Bay of Bengal's coastal and offshore fishing industry plays a vital role in the economic development, social development, and ecological balance. A recent estimate reported that 1.85 million people are engaged in fisheries on a full-time basis covered by the Bay of Bengal Program (BOBP). Other countries catch 8 million tons of fish in the Bay of Bengal, while Bangladesh only catches 637379 tons (DoF, MoF & LS, 2018).
Fishing activities in Bangladesh can be separated into artisanal fishing and industrial fishing (Islam et al. 2017). 70,000 wooded fishing boats (Length 30 to 35 feet) fishing on coastline since they cannot go beyond 20 to 30 km from the coastline. Most of the wooden vessels are not registered (DOF, 2018). Whereas, over 250 steel body registered trawlers go up to 50 nautical miles for fishing. Bangladesh belongs to 660 km long sea area from the coastline, and 2,300 m deep sea. In the Bay of Bengal, most of the deep-sea fishes are dying due to aging because they are not being caught due to lack of appropriate technology to go for deep-sea fishing. Since high amount of fishing boat fish near the shoreline, it creates conflicts with other ocean users (e.g., shipping, tourism, and gas exploration) (DOF, 2018). Bangladesh has few fish processing zones or factories in the coastal area to exports different types of fish including, Hilsa, tuna, shrimp, and crab (Hussain et al. 2018).
Marine aquaculture
Aquaculture is considered the world's fastest-growing food market. Fish for human consumption makes up 47% of the total are provided by the aquaculture sector. Between 1960 and 2009, fish production increased by more than 90 million tons (from 27 to 118 million tons) that are mostly used as food for human consumption 26. It is projected that aquaculture fisheries production will surpass the capture fisheries production soon. In Asia, about 91% of aquaculture is taking place that contributes over 89% of global production (more than 5%/year).
Bangladesh has huge potential for aquaculture development. Aquaculture offers a food and a means of subsistence that ultimately help in poverty reduction. It will consider the importance of natural resources in its production while adhering to ecological guidelines throughout the production cycle, ensuring long-term decent jobs, and supplying high-value export commodities.
Marine aquaculture based on tiger shrimp (Penaeus monodon) culture has evolved into a heavily traded export industry. Tiger shrimp is largely cultured in the coastal districts of Satkhira, Khulna, Bagerhat, and Cox’s Bazar. Between 1970 and 1990, the culture in these areas grew steadily, covering approximately 183,221 hectares (Belton et al. 2011). Softshell crab (Scylla serrata) and finishes are the export items also being cultured. In 2015, Bangladesh received $582 million from shellfish and finfish exports (DoF, 2016). Sea bass (Lates calcarifer) is high-value aquaculture species that can be breed and farming like Philippines, Thailand, and Vietnam.
Increasingly, fishmeal is made from fishery by-products that constitute more than 25% of global production (OECD, 2012). Findings show that at least 50 percent of fishmeal and 50-80 percent of salmonid oil and 30-80 percent of fishmeal and up to 60 percent of marine fish diet oil can eventually be supplemented by vegetable replacements that greatly expand the potential for industry expansion.
There are a high export value and a great potential for marine aquaculture species. However commercial marine aquaculture, as well as marine stock enhancement and sea ranching, are all promising, they are still to be established.
Non-conventional marine species culture
Non-conventional marine species include seaweed, other macroalgae, mussel, oyster, and other shellfish (edible oysters, Crassostrea sp., Saccostrea sp., pearl oyster, Anadra sp., green mussel, Perna viridis, clam, Meretrix meretrix, Marcia opima, sea snails), sea urchin, sea cucumber, etc. Favorable sites for seaweed, sea urchin, sea cucumber culture are Cox’s Bazar, St. Martin’s Island, and coastal areas. These marine invertebrates are used as valuable cancer-treatment pharmaceuticals in many developing countries. Marine pearl culture can be developed in the Bangladesh's suitable inshore and coastal areas following Japan and other countries
Crab fattening was carried out on a limited scale and exported to other countries. Over the last 10-15 years, live giant mud crab (Scylla serrata) and estuarine eel (Muraenesox bagio) have been exported to East Asian countries. The marginal farmers of Satkhira, Bagerhat, and Cox's Bazar produced less than 20% of the exported live crab. Softshell crab farming is being practiced under limited scale in Sathkhira, Cox’s Bazar, and Moheshkhali areas which could extensively be practiced in the feasible other coastal areas like Cox’s Bazar, Moheshkhali, Kutubdia, Chittagong, Khulna Bhola, Barisal regions.
Food security
In developing countries like Bangladesh, one billion people rely on seafood as their main protein source. Aside from that, many people all over the world enjoy seafood. The oceans can be the largest source of food for all developing countries, and they can also help to solve food security concerns.
Energy
Gas and oil
Seabed, a hidden source of treasure that currently provides 32% of the global supply of hydrocarbons that was 20% in 1980. Gas and oil have long been the key sources of energy in the industrialized world, and they will continue to be so for many decades to come. Offshore fields accounted for 32 percent of global crude oil output in 2009, and this figure is expected to grow to 34 percent by 2025, and even higher thereafter. Methane hydrates, a potentially massive source of hydrocarbons, are now being investigated and tapped from the ocean floor.
In Asia, Bangladesh is regarded as the 19th largest producer of natural gas (Alam et al. 2019). Geologists predicted that within the maritime boundary, Bangladesh might have a huge amount of gas and oil reserves like India and Myanmar. Adjacent to the Arakan offshore blocks of Myanmar, there are possibilities of getting remarkable oil and gas reserves.
A total of 20 wells were dug in the Bay of Bengal's offshore locations until 2014. Only two gas reserves were discovered from the exploration (Hossain et al. 2014). Today, Bangladesh discovered 26 blocks in the Bay of Bengal. Among 26 blocks, 15 are deep-sea blocks and 11 are in shallow water blocks (Bari, 2017). Bangladesh producing and using natural gas from offshore block-16 since 1998. Primary tender and negotiation executed on the block no 4, 9, 11, 12, 16, 21 (Hussain et al. 2018).
26 TCF (Trillion Cubic Feet) of the gas reserve has been discovered in Bangladesh. About 1 TCF gas was recorded in offshore gas reserves while the drilling success ratio is also less attractive (9:1) compared to onshore (3:1) (Hossain et al. 2014). 0.8 Tcf gas of the Sangu reserves has already depleted. 0.04 Tcf gas reserves in the Kutubdia reserves are yet to be established. To generate commercial quantities of hydrocarbons, the Magnama (3.5 Tcf) and Hatia (1.0 Tcf) fields must be drilled.
Bangladesh needs to explore the gas and oil field (Alam, 2013). More extensive research, drilling rigs, specialized support ships, platforms building, production, and exploitation required. Downstream activities include refining and distribution to the consumer markets.
Mineral resources
The world is trying to explore and exploit mineral deposits (e.g., cobalt, copper, and zinc) on and beneath the seafloor. The ocean floors may contain 5% of the world's minerals, such as cobalt, copper, and zinc. By 2020, 5% of the world's minerals will have made their way to the ocean floor, with the number increasing to 10% by 2030. In the next ten years, global annual mineral mining is projected to rise from virtually nothing to €5 billion, and then to €10 billion by 2030.
Polymetallic nodules, cobalt crusts, massive sulfide deposits, yttrium, dysprosium, and terbium are important in renewable energy systems and new ICT hardware due to increasing product prices in industries. The International Seabed Authority Initiated Mining Code regulations and licenses to mine in the international sea bed. Coastal countries like Bangladesh need to prepare to explore the ocean resources at the maximum level from the EEZ.
Bangladesh has the prospect to find valuable heavy minerals in Patenga to the Teknaf belt (250 km) (Table 5). According to the Beach Sand Exploration Center, 17 deposits discovered in this belt enriched with minerals like zircon, rutile, ilmenite, leucoxene, kyanite, garnet, magnetite, and monazite have the ability to be useful (Alam, 2004). Extraction in the right way and management of minerals will promote different industries (e.g., welding electrodes, glass, paper, and ceramics) and will provide a large number of job prospects for the local population (Alam, 2004).
Table 5. Heavy mineral reserves are located in deposits along Bangladesh's coastal belt (modified after Alam, 2004).
|
Reserve of minerals
(in MT)
|
Name of the sites
|
Badarmokam
|
Sabrang
|
Teknaf
|
Sikhali
|
Inani
|
Cox’s Bazar
|
Kuakata
|
Crude sand
|
1765000
|
347556
|
1939580
|
2759828
|
729286
|
5119000
|
2872486
|
Heavy minerals
|
411000
|
68582
|
442291
|
489714
|
175476
|
920000
|
831668
|
Zircon
|
4932
|
4184
|
38306
|
33300
|
10880
|
23000
|
9647
|
Rutile
|
3288
|
1372
|
13230
|
10744
|
4036
|
6440
|
3911
|
Ilmenite
|
94530
|
19614
|
163170
|
173360
|
53170
|
161000
|
76015
|
Leucoxene
|
18002
|
3470
|
20124
|
10970
|
439
|
10488
|
9647
|
Kyanite
|
*
|
727
|
14728
|
4407
|
1404
|
*
|
16800
|
Monazite
|
4932
|
206
|
3045
|
3918
|
965
|
2024
|
83.2
|
Magnetite
|
10275
|
1001
|
7209
|
3085
|
5545
|
33214
|
4325
|
Garnet
|
*
|
3018
|
22424
|
39422
|
12810
|
50229
|
52229
|
*Not estimated
|
Mineral extraction and commercialization from beach sand may boost the growth of a variety of industries (such as welding electrodes, glass, paper, and ceramics) and create huge job opportunities for local communities (Alam, 2004).
Marine Renewable Energy
The demand for renewable energy is expected to increase two and a half times by 2035 all over the world. Renewable energy enjoys almost 22% share of the global energy mix. There are several forms of marine renewable energy: (1) offshore solar energy, (2) offshore wind energy, (3) wave energy, (4) tidal energy, (5) ocean thermal energy, (6) salinity gradient, (7) ocean current energy, and (8) energy from marine biomass. Onshore and offshore islands, marine-based renewable energy may provide an alternate source of electric power for homestead houses, small mills, and factories. It also provides a strong source of income for coastal communities that depend on fishing.
Offshore wind energy (electricity generation) is the most evolved of the ocean-based energy sources on a global scale. In 2012, global installed capacity was just over 6 GW, but this is expected to quadruple by 2014, and optimistic forecasts say it could reach 175 GW by 2035. The growth is incredible at the rate of 40%/year, producing 7100 megawatts of electricity in 2013.
Bangladesh has huge potential for renewable energy. In the coastal region of Kutubdia, Bangladesh, a wind generator with a capacity of 2 MW was constructed, but it is still inactive.
Sea salt production
The salt reserves in the world's oceans have already been measured at more than 50 million billion tonnes, covering more than half of the world's supply (Mannar, 1982). In Bangladesh, marine salt production has been traditionally produced mostly at Cox’s Bazar coastal areas (Alam, 2014). Salt can be generated in onshore areas such as Chakaria, Cox's Bazar, Banshkhali, Teknaf, and offshore islands such as Moheshkhali, Kutubdia, and others. The salt farmers can get about 20 tons/ha production during dry seasons. The average production of such crude salt is about 7000-10,000 kg/ha. Production can be increased up to 20,000 kg/ha/season in the locations (Alam, 2014). The coastal region of Cox's Bazar produces 22 metric tons of salt per year, while Thailand's Samut Sakhon produces 43 metric tons (Hossain et al. 2006).
Traditionally, salt (NaCl) is produced by evaporating marine waters. The majority of salt farms are small-scale and run with local machinery. Land is rented from local landowners or the government on a yearly basis.
Marine biotechnology
By 2020, the global demand for marine biotechnology goods will have grown from USD 2.8 billion to USD 5 billion. Marine biotechnology produces pharmaceutical medicines, chemical materials, enzymes, and other industrial products and processes. Biomaterials, health-care diagnostics, fisheries and aquaculture, seafood conservation, bioremediation, and biofuels all benefit from it (Thakur and Thakur, 2006). Marine bio-resources like fish, algae, bacteria, invertebrates, and other marine organisms are used to produce bio-products needed for the benefit of mankind.
Over 36 marine drugs were discovered in 2011, of which 15 were used for cancer treatment. Yondelis was the first marine drug derived from small soft-bodied animals to fight cancer. Antiviral drugs Zovirax and Acyclovir were discovered in sponges from the Caribbean. Marine bioprospecting detected over 14,000 novel chemicals in 2006, and 300 patents on marine natural products were filed. The European Science Foundation assumes that a production volume of 20-80 thousand liters of oil per hectare per year can be achieved from microalgal culture, considerably higher than terrestrial biofuel crops. Approximately 20% of all living marine species are screened for chemical and medicinal purposes (Schlosser, 2013).
The future of marine biotechnology in Bangladesh looks bright. In the Bay of Bengal, a large amount of marine species remains untapped, with enormous potential for marine-based biotechnology production in the region. Biotechnology is a process to create and produce new processes, products, and services (Hossain et al. 2014). The economy of Bangladesh will be developed if marine bio-resources can be turned into medicines, bioactive compounds, nutrient supplements, and food.
Carbon sequestration and Climate change mitigation
The world's biggest environmental or emissions trading market is the carbon market (Newell et al. 2013). Carbon sequestration is a process of taking up CO2 over a long-time by seaweeds, mangrove forests, intertidal salt marshes, and seagrass beds. Seaweed a powerful tool to mitigate carbon, hence reduce climate change. This stored carbon is referred to as blue carbon since it offers carbon credit (Trumper et al. 2009; Nellemann et al. 2009; Chowdhury et al. 2015). Carbon is the greenhouse gas responsible for climate change. Some effective measures like Solar panels, the California Climate Action Plan, and 2015 Paris Climate Agreement undertaken to reduce human carbon footprint. Carbon offsetting (credits for reducing, avoiding, or sequestering carbon) is widely considered to be the most effective method for reducing climate change (van Kooten et al. 2004; Brotto and Pettenella, 2018).
Challenges against blue economy in Bangladesh
Bangladesh should prepare a comprehensive strategy to explore and exploit the ocean resources. It is challenging to balance blue growth and conservation of the environment. The ocean's resources are valued at USD 24 trillion, with a USD 2.5 trillion annual value addition. It is believed that the ocean will offer more economic benefits to ocean-based countries like Bangladesh. Despite having a huge amount of marine resources in the Bay of Bengal, Bangladesh faces numerous obstacles in developing its blue economy.
Resolving the issues of climate changes
Climate change worsens the overall situation. Livelihoods and food security are threatened. Increasing population and less socio-economic development in the exposed zone would result in a high-risk situation (IUCN, 2010). Bangladesh is a low-lying country most vulnerable to
climate change. Huge property and crop damages as well as about 718,000 people died due to cyclone over the past 50 years (Haque et al. 2012). Moreover, potential fish production was reduced by 10% in the Bay of Bengal. Sea level rise, ocean acidification, and change in ecosystem status occur due to changing temperatures. As a result, marine organisms' ability to shape and sustain shells and skeletons, as well as their survival, growth, abundance, and larval development, was harmed. Unfortunately, the long-term climate change impacts on ocean systems are not yet fully understood. Currently, no international mechanism to specifically address acidification, appropriate means need to be elaborated to enable coordinated international action.
Market generation for blue carbon
Long-term carbon sequestration by mangroves, seaweeds, salt marshes, and seagrass can mitigate climate change and also open a new window for carbon trading mechanisms. carbon credits mechanisms can be a great sector for earning and reducing the climate impacts. Coastal blue carbon (seagrass, mangroves, saltmarsh) is estimated to be worth about $180 million in Europe (Luisetti et al. 2013). Other ecosystem services offered by these ecosystems, such as fisheries, can also be protected and capitalized on with such financial incentives for Blue Carbon. Beyond the immediate carbon sequestration benefits, there would be long-term benefits. For example, hundreds of thousands of dollars per hectare is the value of ecosystem services offered by mangroves and tidal marshes. The Blue Economy strategy would put policies, regulations, infrastructure, and incentives in place to make the transition to a low-carbon economy as smooth as possible. Andrew et al. (2019) proposed a blue carbon framework for successful utilization of blue carbon (Fig. 10).
Creating awareness
Awareness creation about the ‘blue economy’ among the general individuals is urgent. This issue in Bangladesh has been confined largely to intellectuals and those interested people. Media coverage (e.g., Television, Radio, Newspaper, etc.) are essential to transforming our people into a more maritime-oriented nation.
Generation of jobs
Employment generation is a great challenge for Bangladesh. Jobs linked to the creation of latest maritime sectors. New sectors generation linked to research and innovation (e.g., minerals exploration, mariculture, etc.). Some sectors need careful attention to develop (e.g., Tourism). A successful blue economy will generate a great number of jobs for the coastal people (Table 6).
Table 6. Overview of forecasts of industry-specific value added and job growth rates for 2010 and 2030 (OECD, 2016).
|
Industry
|
Compound annual growth rate for GVA between 2010 and 2030
|
Total change in GVA between 2010 and 2030
|
Total change in employment between 2010 and 2030
|
Industrial marine aquaculture
|
5.69%
|
303%
|
152%
|
Industrial capture fisheries
|
4.10%
|
223%
|
94%
|
Fish processing
|
6.26%
|
337%
|
206%
|
Maritime and coastal tourism
|
3.51 %
|
199%
|
122%
|
Offshore oil and gas
|
1.17%
|
126%
|
126%
|
Offshore wind
|
24.52%
|
8 037%
|
1 257%
|
Port activities
|
4.58%
|
245%
|
245%
|
Shipbuilding and repair
|
2.93%
|
178%
|
124%
|
Maritime equipment
|
2.93%
|
178%
|
124%
|
Shipping
|
1.80%
|
143%
|
130%
|
Average of the total ocean-based industries
|
3.45%
|
197
|
130
|
Global economy between 2010 and 2030
|
3.64%
|
204
|
120
|
Biodiversity protection and conservation
The biodiversity of the marine ecosystem is being degraded that has immense effects on livelihood. Around 20% of the world's coral reefs have been destroyed, and another 20% are being degraded, according to estimates. 30-50% of mangrove cover has been reduced while 29% of the seagrass ecosystem has been extinct since the late 1800s. In Bangladesh, corals, seaweeds, mangroves, seagrass, saltmarsh, fish are being reduced day by day. In order to restore biodiversity in the Bay of Bengal, an ecosystem approach is needed.
Unsustainable extraction of marine resources
In Bangladesh, the traditional fishing boat can fish up to 60 meters. This causes depletion of fish stock in inland and shallow marine water by overexploitation and unsustainable fishing practices (use of destructive and illegal gears) (BOBLME, 2012). Piracy by domestic and international criminal gangs is also a factor in the decline of fish stocks. Underexploited or moderately exploited marine fish stocks are believed to have decreased from 40% in the mid-1970s to 15% in 2008 whereas stocks that have been exhausted or are recovering have risen from 10% in 1974 to 32% in 2008. The annual loss of overfishing is projected to be in the region of $50 billion. Around 57 percent of fish populations are completely exploited as a result of technological advancements, while the remaining 30 percent are overexploited, declining, or recovering (FAO, 2016). The fish stock is also being depleted by IUU fishing that responsible for fish catch ranges from 11 to 26 million tons per year.
Ensuring food security
The world population will be 900 cores by 2050 and this huge amount will feed largely from the sea (Bhuyan et al. 2020). In developing countries, about 1 billion people rely on seafood as a source of protein. Food security is strongly related to the sustainable use of biodiversity. Mariculture can be a good sector of the blue economy since it provides food for the people. In Bangladesh, mariculture is being done on small scale but it needs to expand industrially.
Destruction of marine and coastal habitats
Cutting down of plants along the coast and uprooted submerged plants causes damage to marine and coastal habitats. Erosion also responsible for the destruction of coastal infrastructure hence affects coastal livelihood. Haphazard development along the coastal area increased externalities in different industries, infrastructure placement that isn't ideal, conflicting ground and sea-based uses, poor communities' demonization, and sensitive ecosystems are being destroyed or degraded. Habitat degradation led to the destruction of marine biodiversity.
Greening of the coastal belt
Coastal belt greening is very important to reduce the wind pressure of cyclones. It also solidifies new lands along the coast. Bangladesh already started working on the coastal belt greening thus will help to sustainable agriculture, river course. It will also stop saline water intrusion.
Marine pollution reduction
Anthropogenic causes (growing human population, intensification of agriculture and the rapid urbanization of coastal areas, sewage, siltation, turbidity, oil spills, maritime shipping, submarine hydrocarbon/mineral exploration and extraction, etc.) are responsible for marine pollution. Marine pollutants can be categorized as liquid, metal, gaseous, solid, or harmful microbes (BOBLME, 2011). Marine pollution led to destroy the marine habitats and damage of marine organisms (Hossain et al. 2014). There are some regulations to stop marine pollution in Bangladesh but are outdated and inactive.
Conflicts minimization among the users (Coastal & marine)
Conflicts among the ocean and coastal resource user is a common phenomenon. In the past conflict was reported between the agricultural sector and shrimp farming sector. Saline water enters into agricultural land when it was converted to shrimp farming. Chakaria Sundarban was converted to a shrimp farm because of huge profits (Iftekhar, 2006). As a result, the Sundarban disappeared from the Chakaria creating environmental damage. People also using the agricultural field for salt production. Government planning to build seaport, deep seaport for the blue economy development. Besides, the government also trying for oil and gas exploration, fisheries, tourism, and other ocean-based activities that will create conflicts among the users.
Maritime Spatial Planning (MSP)
Maritime spatial planning is a very important tool or mechanism for the effective management of ocean resources. MSP recognizes which part would be suitable for mariculture, which part is suitable for port development etc. It will reduce the conflicts among the users if once developed. MSP identifies that the ocean is the driver of blue economic development with blue growth and innovation. But it is very challenging for countries like Bangladesh. Recently, Bangladesh is attempting to develop MSP. An in-depth knowledge of the marine environment is prerequisite for successful MSP development. It will give a clear idea about how maritime activities impact each other and the environment.
Maritime security
Maritime security is very important for successful blue economic development. Each sovereign country is liable for its marine resource uses and sustainable development. Without sovereignty over the entire coastal and marine areas, it will be difficult to use marine resources. The activities of pirates will increase in the oceanic region. For Bangladesh, it is challenging to maintain safety over the commercial coastal area of the Asian nation. Bangladesh needs to be more careful and tactful about maritime security.
Skilled manpower
Bangladesh facing difficulties with expert personnel in the blue economy sectors. Lack of knowledge, expert human resources, and technology yet not available to explore and exploit deep-sea fishes and seabed resources. An expert group of blue technology is required for the maximum benefits from the blue economy.
Ocean governance and international cooperation
Structured foreign/international cooperation supports all facets of the Blue Economy. Updating and advancing governance structures to ensure the sustainable development of waters outside national control (e.g. maritime protection, high seas MPAs, sustainable fisheries, exploitation of petroleum and minerals) or to support in the efficient management and use of national EEZs (e.g. technology transfer, technical assistance, marine spatial planning), capacity building, funding for the promotion of national marine spatial planning and efficient tracking, control, and surveillance). The Economist Intelligence Unit prepare a database of ocean-based countries regarding their performance in Coastal Governance (Fig. 11). Research considers as an essential feature of international cooperation for the blue economy approach. The scientific approach is vital to the sustainable development of the blue economy. The initial assessment and the critical valuation of the blue capital will begin. This will provide a foundation for up-to-date decision-making and adaptive governance. In line with changing circumstances, emerging technology, and our growing awareness, this major undertaking must be tackled and constantly refined and upgraded; then, the Blue Economy approach will be developed. This emphasizes the significance of technical support, transfer of technology, and capacity building in the pursuit of sustainable growth.
Strong maritime policy formulation
A strong marine policy is key for the successful blue economic development. The lack of ‘proper policy’ and marine experts at policy levels, ministry, national organizations, the department is regarded as the hindrance for the implementation of many issues related to the development of marine sectors in Bangladesh. In Bangladesh, less concentration on integrated coastal management and ocean governance policy. Bangladesh following scattered laws, regulations, and policy statements for maritime management. UNCLOS 1982, FAO Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries, 1995, United Nations Fish Stock Agreement, Ramsar Agreement on Wetland issues, Convention on Biological Diversity 1992, and Paris Climate Agreement of 2015 are notable (Rahman et al. 2017). Most of them are fit for the international arena not suitable for national legislation, laws, and policymaking process. As a result, several initiatives are lagging behind to materialize. Bangladesh should adopt a strong and comprehensive maritime strategy concentrating on maritime safety, pollution, resource protection, research, and technology transfer issue. Bangladesh must follow the existing international laws and policies (e.g., UNCLOS, 1982) during the drafting of national marine policy (Bhuiyan, 2014). It is high time for Bangladesh to adopt and implement policies along with maritime technical development and research capacity. Without a strong maritime policy, Bangladesh will be able to get full benefits from the blue economy.
Risks/threats towards blue economy
Blue economy faced lots of threats in the route of successful execution. These risk factors can hamper the ultimate goals of blue economy. An overall risk is depicted in the fig. 12.
Illegal or over-fishing tendency
Illegal or overfishing is a great threat to the blue economy. It depletes the fish stock from the ocean that is difficult to recover. These types of fishing reduce not only the fish but also destroys the other organisms (by-catch) essential for the marine ecosystem. Consequently, it abolishes a valuable source of food and income for the coastal people. About 50 US$ billion is losing per annum due to overfishing. Illegal fishing is a risk to the sustainability of fisheries (FAO, 2014). Increasing world population pressurize fish production. Global fish production is growing at a 3.2 percent annual rate, surpassing global population growth of 1.6 percent (FAO, 2014).
Increasing trend of marine pollution
Marine pollution originating from land-based and marine sources, creating adverse conditions for marine life and human being as well (Fig. 13). Pollution destroying the marine ecosystem, hence threat to marine species. Marine pollution increasing at an unprecedented rate. This increasing trend is averse to sustainable blue economic growth.
Climate change impact
Climate is changing over the period due to mostly be anthropogenic causes, posing threat to marine animals and humans. The ocean is being warmed over the period from 1971 to 2010 at average rates of >0.1°C per decade in the upper 75 metres (m) of the water column and 0.015°C per decade at a depth of 700 m. As a result, glacial melting and rising sea levels (Rhein et al. 2013). The ocean is being acidic due to the increasing pattern of CO2 emissions from manmade sources (e.g., industrialization). Acidification of the ocean is considered as one of the key drivers of oceanophysical and biological changes.
Ocean acidification can cause decreased calcification, slower repair rates, and damaged calcified systems in most marine species (Kroeker et al. 2013). Moreover, reproductive success, early life-stage survival, feeding rate, and stress-response mechanisms can be affected by the acidification phenomenon (Pörtner et al. 2014).
Destruction of nursery, breeding, and feeding habitat
Coastal development, industrialization, trawling, aquaculture is liable for the destruction of the suitable nursery, breeding, and feeding habitat. As a result, ocean productivity is being reduced gradually. Ocean productivity is also being harmed as a result of ocean stratification and reduced nutrient mixing in the open seas. Global Ocean Observing System (GOOS) and LME assessments forecast (2040-2060) a consistent drop in ocean productivity. This poses a threat to the marine environment because animals will perish.
Hypoxic ocean water
Oxygen poor water has an impact on pelagic and benthic marine organisms and their physiological performance and distribution are affected by the hypoxic condition (Pörtner, 2010). Large, mobile and more active fish would face a survival challenge than small ones. There are social and economic effects of coastal hypoxia on coastal areas, including loss of tourism due to restrictions on swimming and boating, beach closures, public health issues, and fish and shellfish consumption, all of which have adverse impacts on estuarine and coastal fishery resources.
Reduction of offshore energy production risk
Bangladesh needs to produce offshore energy for blue economic development. But it is a huge risky work for the marine environment. Off-shore drilling has some negative environmental impacts. Whale beaching is a result of explosive charges and sounds from seismic operations, which can affect dolphins' and other marine mammals' ears. During tanker transportation, oil spills occur. Pollutants and radioactive elements bring up from deep earth during drilling and cuttings mud. Off-shore drilling requires natural gas and burns off the gas occurred to prevent any hazardous condition. Offshore drilling operations are expensive and environmentally sensitive process require terminals and shipyards that also risk to the marine environment.
Shipping emits and discharges pollutants
Shipping has an impact on the environment, whether at sea or ports. The harmful effects on the ecosystem of the oceans have been known for decades. Ships emit SOx about 8 percent annually, while global NOx emissions accounted for 15 percent (Islam, 2018). Around 1 billion tons of CO2 emissions per year have been contributed to the global shipping industry. CO2 alone accounts for 3% of the world's overall Green House Gas (GHG) emissions. Global temperatures have therefore risen by around 0.8°C since 1880, as stated by the Goddard Center for Space Studies of NASA (GISS) (Islam, 2018). Ships discharge oil & chemicals, ballast water, bilge water, sewage & garbage, and antifouling agents in the seawater. Then these pollutants sink and become permanent in the ocean water responsible for huge environmental pollution and biodiversity degradation (Saha and Alam, 2018). Ships discharge oil and contaminants into the seawater, ballast water, bilge water, sewage & waste, and antifouling agents (Fig. 14). These contaminants then sink and become irreversible in ocean water, responsible for immense environmental contamination and destruction of biodiversity (Saha and Alam, 2018).
Ensuring maritime surveillance
Maritime security is required for the increasing number of legal and illegal activities at sea. Maritime safety and security must be strict for marine environment protection, piracy control, fisheries control, trade, and economic interest. In Bangladesh, densely populated coastal cities are working as a hub for terrorism. The networking between organized criminals and terrorists with trans-national capabilities poses maritime security threats. Moreover, the Bay of Bengal remains very rough almost nine months in a year causing maritime security a threat.
Risk at working sites
People are suffering in the workplace, sometimes they get injured working in shipping lines and related terminals, yards, etc. Lack of protective clothing and training in handling the equipment causes accidents. At ship recycling or ship breaking yards, workers get attacked by various chronic diseases. Sometimes the worker gets injured in the working sites (Onselen, 2018).
Accidental oil tanker spill
Oil tanker accidents can be disastrously damaging to the surrounding environment. The effects of oil pollution are even more severe when tank blast along the shore/coast (Khondaker, 1998). Worldwide oil tanker explosion is a common phenomenon. The global accidental oil spill trend is presented in the following fig. 15.
In Bangladesh, oil spill risk is associated with oil transportation in regular oil tanker movements. About 20 crude oil carriers and 80 product carriers call at Chittagong Port every year. Chittagong Port handles approximately 1200 international ships on annual basis and more than 400 ships call at Mongla Port each year.
The causes of oil tanker accidents are mechanical failures and human negligence or errors. Moreover, collision, allision, grounding, fire on board, or explosion resulting from flammable gas are also responsible for oil tanker accidents.
Oil spill incidents
A large oil spill took place back in 1989. MT Filothei, an old Cypriot vessel arrived at the outer anchorage of Chittagong Port fully loaded with crude oil imported for Eastern Refinery Limited. Another oil tanker accident took place in May 1998.
Karnaphuli oil spill
Oil tanker leaving for Khulna Desh-1 collided with City-38, a vegetable oil tanker, carrying 1200 tons of diesel. On Saturday, October 26, 2019, it was anchored at Karnaphuli River's Padma Jetty.
Sundarbans oil spill
On December 9, 2014, an oil spill occurred in the Sundarbans (a UNESCO World Heritage site) at the Shela River. An oil-tanker named Southern Star VII that was carrying 350,000 litres (77,000 imp gal; 92,000 US gal) of furnace oil collide with a cargo vessel and descended in the river. The oil had spread out over a 350 km2 (140 sq mi) area including the second river, canals, and shoreline.
A clear picture of the top 20 major oil spill around the world tabulated in Table 7.
Table 7. Top 20 major oil spills around the globe (Data Source: ITOPF, 2020).
|
Position
|
Ship name
|
Year
|
Location
|
Spill Size (tonnes)
|
1
|
Atlantic Empress
|
1979
|
Off Tobago, West Indies
|
287,000
|
2
|
Abt Summer
|
1991
|
700 nautical miles off Angola
|
260,000
|
3
|
Castillo De Bellver
|
1983
|
Off Saldanha Bay, South Africa
|
252,000
|
4
|
Amoco Cadiz
|
1978
|
Off Brittany, France
|
223,000
|
5
|
Haven
|
1991
|
Genoa, Italy
|
144,000
|
6
|
Odyssey
|
1988
|
700 miles off the coast of Nova Scotia, Canada
|
132,000
|
7
|
Torrey Canyon
|
1967
|
Scilly Isles, UK
|
119,000
|
8
|
Sea Star
|
1972
|
Gulf of Oman
|
115,000
|
9
|
Sanchi
|
2018
|
Off Shanghai, China
|
113,000
|
10
|
Irenes Serenade
|
1980
|
Navarino Bay, Greece
|
100,000
|
11
|
Urquiola
|
1976
|
La Coruna, Spain
|
100,000
|
12
|
Hawaiian Patriot
|
1977
|
300 nautical miles off Honolulu
|
95,000
|
13
|
Independenta
|
1979
|
Bosphorus, Turkey
|
94,000
|
14
|
Jakob Maersk
|
1975
|
Oporto, Portugal
|
88,000
|
15
|
Braer
|
1993
|
Shetland Islands, UK
|
85,000
|
16
|
Aegean Sea
|
1992
|
La Coruna, Spain
|
74,000
|
17
|
Sea Empress
|
1996
|
Milford Haven, UK
|
72000
|
18
|
Khark 5
|
1989
|
120 nautical miles off Morocco's Atlantic coast
|
70,000
|
19
|
Nova
|
1985
|
Off Kharg Island, Gulf of Iran
|
70,000
|
20
|
Katina P
|
1992
|
Off Maputo, Mozambique
|
67,000
|
The spill has devastating effects on trees, plankton, fisheries, agricultural resources, and dolphins. Spilled oil is highly toxic that is responsible for the death of phytoplankton and zooplankton (primary producer of the marine ecosystem). This results destruction of the food chain of that certain area. Marine mammals and seabirds are particularly vulnerable to spilled oil.
Sustainable development pathways
Sustainable development is the guiding principle for achieving the objectives of human development while retaining the capacity of natural systems to provide the natural resources and ecosystem services on which the economy and community depend (Fig. 16). A state of society in which living standards and the utilization of resources continue to meet human needs considering the marine environment. An integral and vital part of sustainable development is the oceans, seas, and coastal areas. Oceans and seas account for 80 percent of all life forms and 90 percent of global trade is sea-borne. More than 3 billion people rely for their livelihood on marine and coastal resources. Due to the massive facilities, 13 of the world's 20 megacities are along the coastline. Despite having a wide range of positive sides, ocean resources should be extracted sustainably.
Initiatives adopted by Bangladesh for sustainable maritime development
It is high time for Bangladesh to achieve unparalleled economic growth and phenomenal growth in regional connectivity, seaports, coastal manufacturing, offshore oil and gas production, special economic zones, and energy clusters. Different factors are responsible for sustainable blue economy in Bangladesh (Fig. 17). The Bangladesh Delta Plan 2100 is a big Blue Economy project focusing on long-term delta management, integrated management of water resources, long-term land reclamation, and climate change adaptation, etc. Besides, Vision 2041, a long-term strategy for a developed Bangladesh, has established the Blue Economy as one of the main drivers of sustainable growth. Besides, the goals of SDG 2030, particularly SDG Target 14 are being introduced with various maritime growth agenda in Bangladesh. To ensure that both government and private sector maritime stakeholders in the country are properly organized in their Blue Economy activities, the government has created an autonomous Blue Economy Cell. Bangladesh established Maritime Affairs Unit to increase the international cooperation for the blue economic growth of Bangladesh. Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Maritime University, Bangladesh Oceanographic Research Institute, and Marine and Technology Station of Bangladesh Fisheries Research Institute (BFRI) established for higher ocean education and research. There are various public and private universities, academies/departments, and departments that teach marine and oceanography-related subjects.
Three voluntary commitments were made in New York by Bangladesh at the UN Ocean Conference in June 2017. Firstly, 5% of marine areas should be designated a Marine Protected Area (MPA) of around 7,500 sq km by 2020 (Target 14.2). Marine protected areas (%) of total territorial waters in South Asia shown in fig. 18. The Sundarbans, the world's largest mangrove ecosystem, has been declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Secondly, IUU fishing and harmful fishing activities in marine areas should be effectively controlled (Target 14.4). The third promise is to avoid and significantly reduce all kinds of marine pollution, particularly pollution from land-based sources (Target 14.1). The establishment of collaborations with companies and international institutes, but also at the national level, will promote research in the field of marine aquaculture for the advancement of projects.
Both types of fish are prohibited from being fished for 65 days, and juvenile Hilsa fish are prohibited from being fished for 8 months if they are less than 25 cm long., a 22-day fishing ban for large Hilsa fish, and a complete ban on destructive fishing activities in the Bangladesh Maritime Region (Islam and Shamsuddoha, 2018). In 2012, Bangladesh announced the first MPA-SONG in the world under the Wild Conservation Act. In addition, the IUCN established and published a proposal for the establishment of MPAs in Bangladesh in 2015, which proposed a total of 67 MPA declaration sites, including St. Martin Island and Nijhum Dip (Karim and Uddin, 2019). The South Patch has already been declared a marine reserve by the Fisheries Department and the Sundarbans have been declared an ECA by the Ministry of Environment.
Initiatives taken by the ocean-based countries
The scientific approach is needed for the blue economic development that emphasizes the appropriate conservation and sustainable management of the marine resources (living and non-living). Fisheries and aquatic plants are living resources, while non-living resources are made up of minerals, oil & gas, identification and use of new and existing resources, and international cooperation, successful ocean governance, and management of ocean and coastal resources.
Different ocean-based countries already passed National Ocean Acts15 while some of the countries have made special budgetary provisions for the blue economy. Australia, Brazil, Canada, China, Colombia, Japan, Norway, Portugal, Russia, United Kingdom, and the USA already formulated National Ocean Policy. USA, Canada, and Australia have special legislation and specific provisions for ocean policy in their national budgets. Canada and Australia established a systematic hierarchy of institutions at federal and state levels to plan, coordinate and monitor the progress on various pillars of ocean policy. In Canada, three different layers of institutions comprising the National Ocean Act, Ocean Strategy, and Ocean Action Plan govern the development, management, and governance of ocean resources (Mohanty et al. 2017).
At the federal and state levels, Canada and Australia have formed a systematic hierarchy of institutions to prepare, organize and track progress on the different pillars of ocean policy. In Canada, the growth, management, and governance of ocean resources are governed by three distinct layers of institutions comprised of the National Ocean Act, Ocean Policy, and Ocean Action Plan. Likewise, coastal and marine issues are handled by a multi-layer institutional framework consisting of Ocean Policy, Regional Maritime Strategies, Integrated Ocean Planning & Management, the Minister for the Environment and Heritage, the National Advisory Council, and others (Repetto, 2005).
Seychelles and Mauritius have established separate ministries for the blue economy. For example, the Government of Mauritius formulated a Roadmap for Ocean Economy in 2013 which included diverse objectives, action plans, and mutual-reinforcing sectoral components. In 2009, the Government of Australia launched a Strategic National Framework for Marine Research and Innovation (Mohanty et al. 2017). In Europe, the Netherlands, Denmark, and Norway are quite successful in implementing the blue economy policies. Following their success, Ireland introduced a Marine Knowledge, Research, and Innovation Strategy in 2006 for the period 2007-13 which aimed at policy measures to promote blue economy sectors in the Irish economy. The CARIFORUM-EU Economic Partnership Agreement signed in 2008 encourages the importance of fisheries and other living marine resources in the CARICOM member states and the Dominican The Seychelles and Mauritius have set up separate blue economy ministries (Mohanty et al. 2017). In 2013, for instance, the Government of Mauritius developed a Roadmap for the Ocean Economy that included different goals, action plans, and sectoral components of mutual reinforcement. A Comprehensive National Framework for Marine Exploration and Innovation was initiated by the Government of Australia in 2009. The Netherlands, Denmark, and Norway have been very active in the introduction of blue-economy policies in Europe. Following their performance, Ireland launched in 2006 a Marine Awareness, Research and Innovation Plan for the period 2007-13, aimed at promoting the blue economy sectors in the Irish economy through policy initiatives. The Economic Partnership Agreement between CARIFORUM and the EU, signed in 2008, promotes the value of fisheries and other living marine resources in the Member States of CARICOM and the Dominican Republic. Similarly, the Temporary Cooperation Agreement between the European Community and the Pacific States includes clauses on trade in fishery products which are derogated directly from the Rules of Origin (Mohanty et al. 2017).
Regional research and networking projects, such as the EU Joint Programming Initiative for Safe and Sustainable Seas and Oceans (JPI-OCEANS), the European Marine Biological Resource Centre (EMBRC), CSA MarineBiotech, the European Research Area Network (ERA-NET), the Association of European Marine Biological Laboratories (ASSEMBLE) and others, are intended to establish popular research.
Trans-regional projects such as the Mediterranean Science Commission (CIESM), the Sustainable Use of Baltic Marine Resources Program (SUBMARINER), and the BioMarine Program are intended to contribute to the promotion of marine biotechnology research and applications. In order to build capacity and promote innovation in the core industries and sectors of the blue economy, these national and regional initiatives are important. Bangladesh established the Maritime Affairs Unit at MOFA, for exploring the international cooperation for maritime development.
Partner agencies working on blue economic development worldwide
Potential Partner Agencies and Processes include AIMS, AOSIS, CARICOM, Convention on Biological Diversity, Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf, Convention on Migratory Species, Indian Ocean Commission, Commonwealth Secretariat, Duke University USA, GLISPA, Global Ocean Acidification Observing Network, Global Ocean Commission (GOC), Global Ocean Forum, the IOC/UNESCO Global Ocean Observing System (GOOS), World Bank (IBRD), International Maritime Organisation, International Seabed Authority, IOR-ARC, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration USA, Ocean Acidification International Coordination Centre, Ocean Acidification International Reference User Group, Plymouth Marine Laboratory UK, Regional Seas Programmes, RFMOs, SPREP, UNDESA, UNDOALOS (UNCLOS), UNDP, UNEP, UNESCO’s Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission, UNFAO, UNIDO, UNWTO, World Ocean Council. CBD Sustainable Oceans Initiative, UNEP Green Economy Initiative, European Project on Ocean Acidification.
GDP in South Asia
South Asian countries making growth in their GDP. In case of Bangladesh, GDP was 7.9% in 2018 while it reaches 7.3% in 2021 (Table 8). Bangladesh can make significant growth in GDP using ocean resources. Some recommendations provided for sustainable use of blue economy, hence the growth of national GDP.
Table 8. Real GDP growth in South Asia.
|
Country name
|
2018 (%)
|
2019 (e) (%)
|
2020 (f) (%)
|
2021(f) (%)
|
Afghanistan (CY)
|
1.8
|
2.5
|
3.0
|
3.5
|
Bangladesh (FY)
|
7.9
|
8.1
|
7.2
|
7.3
|
Bhutan (FY)
|
4.6
|
5.0
|
7.4
|
5.9
|
India (FY)
|
6.8
|
6.0
|
6.9
|
7.2
|
Maldives (CY)
|
6.7
|
5.2
|
5.5
|
5.6
|
Nepal (FY)
|
6.7
|
7.1
|
6.4
|
6.5
|
Pakistan (FY and factor price)
|
5.5
|
3.3
|
2.4
|
3.0
|
Sri Lanka (CY)
|
3.2
|
2.7
|
3.3
|
3.7
|
Sources: GDP: gross domestic product, CY: calendar year, FY: fiscal year, e: estimate f: forecast; in Bangladesh, Bhutan, Nepal and Pakistan, 2019 refers to FY2018/2019 and ended in June 2019. For India, 2019 refers to FY2019/2020 and will end in March 2020 (World Bank, 2019).
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Recommendations for sustainable blue economic development
A successful blue economy is collaborative efforts of oceanographers, engineers, navigators, merchant mariners, fisheries technologists, biologists, biotechnologists, etc. Since Bangladesh act as a central cohesive source of support of economic hub connecting inter-Asian states, it is necessary to formulate Blue Economy strategies carefully. A comprehensive blue economy framework proposed for Bangladesh’s sustainable extraction of blue resources (Fig. 19). The Blue economy initiative specifically aims to increase job opportunities in the short, medium, and long-term time frames. The government should emphasize coastal poverty reduction in the Bay of Bengal by developing a good policy and action plan. The following policy recommendations are needed for successful Blue Economy execution.
Overall policy recommendations
Blue economic risk can be reduced/ minimized following the prescribed recommendations. A traditional risk management approach also proved useful in the minimization of threats (Fig. 20).
Maritime skill development
Bangladesh should increase the marine educational institutions. Expert needed in the field of oceanography, marine dynamics, marine engineering, biotechnology, marine fisheries, marine trade, offshore engineering, naval architectural engineering, marine geological aspect, marine environment, and ecosystem science, etc.
Marine expert panel
An expert panel from varied fields (Marine Biologists, Fisheries and aquaculture specialists, Marine Trade experts, Economists) can be implemented for the purpose of tracking and assessing the proposed project. They will provide technical and other assistance. Without the approval of the expert group, no project work can be undertaken.
Marine research organizations
Pure marine research-based organizations must be established with up-to-date modern technologies (e.g., Deep-sea research vessel, underwater camera, etc.).
Marine Spatial Planning (MSP)
Marine Spatial Planning is an important tool for Bangladesh to manage and use blue economy resources in a sustainable way. An effective MSP prerequisite to ensure a stabilized and sustainable blue economy in any ocean-based country through policy and legal protection despite many challenges.
Comprehensive ocean policy
A comprehensive ocean policy based on a shared regional vision for integrated ocean planning and management. Bangladesh should design the foreign policy in such a way so that it can actively participate in regional and global forums or associations. The participation will help to fulfill its vision of the ‘blue economy’.
Ocean governance
Investment for the strong ocean governance that promotes a blue economy.
Scientific review and economic analysis
Regular systematic scientific review and economic analysis can be executed for the successful blue economy.
Public-private partnership
The public-private partnership plays a key role in the sustainable blue economy as a way to enhance capacity building.
Identification of priority sectors
Priority sectors must be recognized based on domestic and global needs. Then research work must be carried out on the identified sectors.
International collaboration
Regional collaboration is needed for technical assistance, technology transfer, and capacity building. Ocean resources management and exploration highly dependent on such kind of cooperation. The cooperative mechanism among members of the Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation (BIMSTEC) can be developed to promote collaboration for reaping the maximum benefit of the blue economy.
Maritime security and surveillance
Security is essential to protect EEZ and high seas areas from international smugglers, trafficking of drugs, humans, and arms, fish pirates, and narco-terrorism. Maritime security is also needed to reduce ocean-based crimes on the national border.
Environment and biodiversity protection
Marine resources exploration and exploitation should be executed in an environment eco-friendly way. Marine ecological balanced must be ensured. Increasing temperature responsible for ocean acidification, coral bleaching, and loss of biodiversity. Mangrove, seaweed, seagrass have a great role in managing carbon emission, hence climate change mitigation. These resources must be protected. Protecting the sea area free from both marine and land-based pollution. Sustainable development can be achieved by protecting the marine biodiversity from possible threats (Fig. 21).
Monitoring and evaluation
Strong monitoring and evaluation committee should be formed for the regular check of the ongoing blue economy activities. This committee will report the progress and failure from time to time to the concerned authorities.
Lesson from successful countries
Bangladesh can follow the successful blue economy countries reported by UNEP (2015). Bangladesh can take a lesson from these countries and can make an expert of its own.
Sector-wise recommendations
Table 9 represent the sector-wise recommendations for the sustainable use of ocean resources.
Table 9. Sector-wise recommendations for the fruitful use of blue economy to be developed country.
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Maritime sectors
|
Sub-sectors
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Recommended activities
|
Fishing
|
Capture fishery, Aquaculture, and seafood processing.
|
1) Upcoming Bangabandhu Satellite-based monitoring system 2) Fish capture and protection capability increase 3) Promotion of environment-friendly and sustainable shrimp, crab, and potentially important other species farming systems in the coastal region 4) Mitigation and adaptive measures on the impacts of climate change
5) Declaration of fish sanctuaries
6) Seasonal banning of fishing
7) Advanced deep-sea vessel and technologies
8) Should be a member state of IOTC
9) Encourage Integrated Multi Trophic Aquaculture (IMTA)
10) Maritime security and surveillance to stop piracy and IUU fishing
11) Ensure entrance for native & poor fishermen and ban foreign trawlers
12) Women empowerment
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Minerals
|
Oil and gas, deep-sea mining (exploration of rare earth metals).
|
1) Determine the location of possible oil and gas fields, as well as their reserves
2) A well-thought-out strategy is needed to carry out a multiline survey
3) Massive exploration and drilling activities
4) Monitoring and assessment
5) Public and private partnerships
6) Foreign support
7) Update the potential evaluation initially that was done in 1994
|
Salt production
|
Salt production
|
1) Land-leasing structures that are focused on the community
2) Sufficient credit facilities
3) Mechanical machinery is used (water pump, leveler, etc.)
4) Reliable weather forecasting
5) Modern techniques even collecting and refining common salt by mining
6) Public-private partnership
|
Marine Renewable Energy
|
Solar, wind, wave, and Tidal energy production.
|
1) Marine Renewable Energy mapping project to determine the true potential 2) Financial support from national and foreign
3) Technology transfer and training
4) Long-term policies
|
Marine Biotechnology
|
Pharmaceuticals, chemicals, seaweed harvesting, seaweed products, marine-derived bio-products.
|
1) Mid and Long-term research on preservation, processing, and quality control of marine products 2) Encouragement of Sea food-based restaurant and sea product based industry
|
Marine Manufacturing
|
Boat and ship manufacturing and repairing, marine instrumentation, marine industrial engineering.
|
1) Loan and project to implement Maine manufacturing
|
Port, Shipping & Maritime Logistics
|
Ship building and repairing, ship owners and operators, shipping agents and brokers, ship management, container shipping services, customs clearance, freight forwarders.
|
1) Sonadia deep (Island) seaport establishment 2) Capability building of three existing ports 3) Need more sophisticated ships
4) Increase modern merchant ships
5) Needs to add more fleets
6) Proper monitoring and management system and training
7) Effective planning and actions
8) Diplomatic efforts to consolidate Bangladesh’s international position
9) Need expertise in technical areas
10) Construction of a deep-sea port (DSP)
|
Marine Tourism
|
Sunbath, Sailing, and boating at sea, surfing, scuba diving, swimming in the sea, bird watching in coastal areas, whale, dolphin watching, trips to the beach, seaside, and islands.
|
1) Eco-friendly tourism 2) Safety and security 3) Easy communication system 4) Marine tourism zone
5) National and regional planning
6) Technical cooperation
7) Public financial support and
8) Public-private partnerships
|
Education and Research
|
Education and training, Research and Development.
|
1) Capability enhancement of maritime educational department, institutions, and research centre
2) Making high-quality maritime experts
3) Greater use of economic analysis
4) Better use of innovations in science and technology (e.g., drones, unmanned airborne vehicle (UAVs), sensors, mapping, imaging)
5) Government and stakeholder engagement
6) Formulate comprehensive Ocean Policy
|
Source: Hasan et al. 2018
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National policies, acts, and rules adopted by Bangladesh
Bangladesh government adopted some legislation and regulatory framework for maritime and ocean governance (Table 10). These are Territorial Water and Maritime Zones Act, Coastal Zone Policy-2005, Coastal Development Strategy-2006, Port Act 2006, Arbitration Act 2016, Merchant Ship Ordinance of 1983, Flag Ordinance Convention 1982, Inland Shipping Ordinance 1976, Protection and Conservation of Fish Act of 1950, Marine Fisheries Ordinance and Rules 1983, Wild Conservation Act-2002, Forest Act-1927, Provision of Ecologically Critical Area (ECA) Regulation 1995, the Bangladesh Petroleum Act-1974, National Energy Policy-2004, Bangladesh Water Policy-1999, Bangladesh Water Act-2013 (Shamsuzzaman et al. 2017). Most of the legislation and regulations were enacted a long time ago. Some of them updated from time to time based on the changing social, economic, cultural, and environmental circumstances, but most of the time the legal framework failed to tackle new challenges (Islam and Wahab, 2005). Updating of these outdated and inactive legislations are required. Department of Shipping (DOS) and Fisheries (DOF) are trying to make new shipping and fisheries act (Islam et al. 2017).
Table 10. Reviewed or developing policies related to the Blue Economy in Bangladesh (Source: Patil et al. 2018).
|
Sector
|
Policies
|
Laws and acts
|
Responsible institutions
|
Coastal Protection Climate change resilience and adaptation (including coastal protection)
|
Bangladesh Climate Change Strategy and Action Plan (BCCSAP) is to be completed by 2020. National Action Plan for Adaptation (NAPA) is to be completed by 2020.
|
The 2010 Climate Change Trust Act established the Bangladesh CC Trust, the Bangladesh CC Trust Fund, and the Bangladesh Climate Change Resilience Fund.
|
Ministry of Environment and Forests Disaster Management Information Centre of Ministry of Food and Disaster Management
|
Existence of Biodiversity, including mangrove ecosystems (“blue forests”)
|
Coastal and Wetland Biodiversity Management Plan is under review.
|
Wetland Conservation Act;
Environment Conservation Act, 1995, 2000, and 2002; Environment Conservation Rules, 1997, 2000, 2001; National Conservation Strategy, 2005; National River Protection Commission Act, 2013; Forest Act, 1927; Wildlife Protection and Security Act, 2012
|
The Ministry of Environment and Forests The Bangladesh National Herbarium
|
Waste Disposal, including addressing externalities from industrial and agriculture pollution creating marine dead zones
|
Bangladesh Water Act is under review and revision.
|
Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM), 2005; Participatory Water Management Regulations, 2014
|
Ministry of Water Resources
|
Energy (including renewable energy from wave, wind, and solar from ocean areas and explicit gender dimensions)
|
Renewable Energy Policy, 2008 and National Energy Policy, 2004 are under review
|
The Bangladesh Petroleum Act of 1974 supports planning, organizing, and implementation of exploration, exploitation, development, and production of petroleum wealth from the sea (including all territorial waters, continental shelf, and EEZ).
|
Ministry of Power, Energy, and Mineral Resources Sustainable and Renewable Energy Development Authority (SREDA) Bangladesh Power Development Board (BPDB) Local Government Engineering Directorate (LGED) Blue Economy Cell
|
Living Resources: Capture Fisheries, supporting sustainability
|
National Marine Fisheries Policy, undergoing consultations and review
|
The proposed National Marine Fisheries Policy includes provision for development of new laws in support of sustainable capture fisheries.
|
Ministry of Fisheries and Livestock, Dept. of Fisheries Bangladesh Fisheries Development Corp.; Bangladesh Coast Guard; Bangladesh Navy
|
Living Resources: Aquaculture, including mariculture
|
National Aquaculture Development Strategy and Action Plan (2013-2020) is reviewed annually. 2014 National Shrimp Policy is under review
|
Fish Hatchery Act 2010; Fish Hatchery Rules 2011; Fish Feed and Animal Feed Act 2010; Fish Feed Rules 2011; Fisheries Research Institute Ordinance, 1984
|
Ministry of Fisheries and Livestock
|
Tourism, including marine tourism
|
National Tourism Policy, 2009 is under review
|
Tourism Board Act, 2010 Bangladesh Tourism Protected Areas and Special Tourism Zone Act, 2010; Bangladesh Tourism Protected Areas and Special Tourism Zone Rules, 2011
|
Ministry of Civil Aviation and Tourism Chambers of Commerce Bangladesh Parjatan Corp. Ministry of Shipping
|
Shipping and Transport including measures to address marine pollution
|
Maritime and Shipping Strategy of Bangladesh
|
Clean Air Act; Import Policy Orders; 2012-2015; Payra Port Authority Act, 2013; Chittagong Port Authority (Amendment) Act, 1995; Mongla Port Authority (Amendment) Act, 1995; Navy Ordinance, 1961; Coast Guard Act, 1994
|
Ministry of Power, Energy and Mineral Resources Infrastructure Financing Facility Inland Water Transport Authority
|
Ocean-based industry development and growth via access to finance
|
Comprehensive Credit Policy for SMEs, including encouraging investment in ocean industries
|
Inclusive Digital Financial Systems, 2015
|
Ministry of Industries Bangladesh Standards and Testing Institution Bangladesh Small and Cottage Industries Corporation Bangladesh Chemical Industries Corporation Bangladesh Bank
|
Policymaking authority in Bangladesh
Blue Economy Cell (BEC), the solely authorized cell to formulate ocean policy. It was formed in January 2017 as part of the Ministry of Power, Energy, and Mineral Resources' Energy and Mineral Resources Division (Islam and Shamsuddoha, 2018). But the activities of the BEC are confined to holding occasional meetings since the administrative body is equipped with inadequately a few officials temporarily. Though the Parliamentary Standing Committee on Power, Energy, and Mineral Resources Ministry recommended upgrading the BEC as an authority with a permanent setup, but the recommendation has been ignored (MOFA, 2018). Co-operation between ministries at the regional level is very important for successful blue economic development.