3.1 Livelihood strategies of the community
From focus group discussion and field observation, it was learned that, in the study area, crop-livestock mixed farming is the main means of living Crop production takes the highest land share because of land scarcity and economic capacity to own animals. Even though crop production was more practiced, it does not satisfy their annual food demand and thus, they rely on external food aid (Assefa, et al., Submitted). Teff, sorghum, and maize were the most major crop types, and cattle, goat, sheep, donkey, and poultry are commonly reared livestock.
3.2 Domestic energy sources of the rural household
From the focus group discussion and observations in the area, it was evident that biomass is the highest source of energy on which the entire rural households rely. All the respondents (100%) reported that fire wood is used as a fuel for cooking, lighting and heating purposes. Although the extent is very low, they support their energy need with animal dung (85.49%) and crop residue (83.55%) for cooking, and some also use kerosene (46.09%) and only 4.09% use small scale alternative energy sources like solar for lighting. Besides, very few, 4.57% of the respondents indicated that they use charcoal for heating and rarely use for coffee ceremony and majorities prepare and sell it to the urban residents (Table 1). Cooking was done primarily by firewood, and followed by animal dung and crop residues. Crop residue was used especially in the dry season at the time of harvesting period. Modi, (2004) found that poor individuals without access to modern energy source rely on traditional energy such as fuel wood and charcoal, which lead to environmental degradation such as desertification and soil erosion. In Ethiopia, studies showed that, the share of traditional biomass fuel (i.e., in the form of wood, charcoal and dung) accounts ~90% of total primary energy use of the household (Mekonnen and Kohlin, 2009), and about 84% and 99% of urban and rural households, respectively, rely on biomass as their primary fuel for cooking (Gurmessa, 2010). The practice was also common in many Sub-Saharan Africa, example, in Zambia where fuel wood is used for cooking and heating by 97% of rural and 85% of urban households (Central Statistics Office, 2005), and generally it is the major source of energy and contributing to over 70% of the total national energy budget (GRZ, 2007).
Table 1: Domestic energy sources on which rural households relied
|
Domestic energy sources
|
North Wollo (n=215)
|
Wag Hemera (n=183)
|
Average
(n=398)
|
|
%
|
%
|
%
|
|
Fire wood
|
100
|
100
|
100.00
|
|
Dung cake
|
84.19
|
86.79
|
85.49
|
|
Crop residue
|
85.12
|
81.97
|
83.55
|
|
Charcoal
|
3.09
|
6.05
|
4.57
|
|
Kerosene
|
47.91
|
44.26
|
46.09
|
|
Small scale of alternative energy technology (Solar or electricity)
|
3.26
|
4.92
|
4.09
|
Sources: Own survey
The high dependence of rural households on traditional fuel was mainly associated to the economic development level of the country and settlement pattern of the community. Despite the technology advancement in alternative energy sources, the practice of using it was not considerable in the area. Moreover, FGD discussants said that the use of forest as main source of domestic energy has attained difficult state. On one hand, forest/woodland has been declining progressively compared to the situation in past (30-40 years ago). Musa and Azare (2016) indicated that in the past, the source of fuel wood was simple, and the environmental impacts arising from its exploitation were minimal due to low human population, however, as a result of population increase, dependence on wood as a source of fuel started showing signs of inadequacy.
On the other hand, the discussants explained that cutting tree for fire wood adversely affect land productivity and food security due to solemn degradation since tree and their emendate environment are the main sources of their livelihood. Even due to the previous unwise act, the community has been observing severe drought and loss of their livings including damage on their land. Replanting and growing tree will not be as easy as utilizing tree as the semi-arid environmental situation challenge growth. Dawit (2010) also noted that the huge amount of wood consumption, especially in the rural areas, is a catastrophic to the environment as tree plantation to replace them is not so common. The resulted deforestation that has been going on for many decades is also a cause to biodiversity loss and soil erosion which in turn affects the balance of the ecosystem. Generally, the upturning cumulative impacts of using traditional biomass as energy source on the livelihood and both rural and urban human wellbeing appear as the main insistent factor to switch from traditional energy source to modern sources but net yet.
3.3 Effects of rural household dependence on biomass for fuel on forest resources
The impacts of historical droughts, domestic consumption of tree, population growth, natural and accelerated aridity of the land, and the impact of current climate change were noted as the key reasons for the existing poor coverage of forest in the area. Discussants said that the communities were severely maltreated by droughts occurred in 1955, 1965, 1975, 1985, 1995, 2005 and 2015. Of these, although all the mentioned had caused comparable and continued impact on the community, the 1985 drought was caused the most severe impact on the human lives and forest resource. Dryness of trees and consequent depletion of natural resource including the fertile topsoil and the consequent poverty were among the most mentioned.
All the respondents (100%) and discussants stated human contribution for the clearance of tree outweigh than the impact of drought (Figure 1). Although cutting trees for fire wood, house construction and other forest product like timber causes deforestation, conversion of forest land into cultivated land is also important cause of deforestation (FAO, 2016), which increase erosion, land degradation, biodiversity loss, food insecurity and poverty (FAO, 2017). Understanding the multiple side effects of deforestation on human life including local energy supply, there is growing interest to rehabilitate the area through massive plantation by government and non-government organizations. Despite natural and accelerated aridity that hinders the growth of forest biomass, dependence for fuel appeared as serious problem for an effective rehabilitation in the study area. Globally, enduring dependence of energy on fire wood for cooking, heating and lighting was added additional burden on land rehabilitation and poverty reduction efforts. FAO, (2017) stated that limited availability of, and access to fire wood fuel could exacerbate hunger and poverty by challenging the primary energy source for various purposes including cooking.
The impact of energy problem moves from environmental and economic to social, example, through imposing women to move long distant to collect fire wood. Mazzoni, et al., (2003) stated that traditional fuel use has disproportionate effects on women, and contributes further to the social inequalities that are, for instance, caused by an uneven distribution of fuel-collection, cooking, and childcare responsibilities between men and women within the household. Of all these, the worst situation was the lack of no progress to switch from relying on traditional energy, which reached to no capacity to offer needed service, to alternative energy source. Because, in the nearby area, there were no forestlands from which the people could access fire wood easily though less recommended. Thus, community more rely on the animal dung and crop residue, which have still its own effect on the efforts to ensure food security.
3.3.1 Effects of biomass fuel utilization on agricultural production
Cutting tree for domestic energy source such as for fire wood and charcoal were among the key causes for the continued removal of forest resource and resultant low soil fertility, 100% of the respondents reported (Figure 1). Demands of fuel increase due to ever growing population that relies on biomass for fuel. In urban areas, where alternative energy such as electricity is available, due to cultural background and cost, Ethiopians prefer charcoal for cooking and heating. This adds to deforestation and land degradation through soil erosion and wind. In the study area, due to severe shortage of wood, animal dung has been used as energy sources for cooking, which should have been utilized for fertilizing cropland. Studies showed that cattle dung contains essential nutrients such as potassium, phosphorus and nitrogen and organic carbon, which have significant role on soil fertility (Nyamangara et al., 2001; Lakasi et al., 2003; Negasa et al., 2017). Thus, utilization of cattle dung for energy could adversely affect crop production.
In the study area, farmers use crop residue, mainly residue of maize and sorghum for fuel, and residue of crops such as teff is used for feeding livestock. From nutrient recycling and maintaining soil quality and reducing erosion perspectives, keeping residue on cropland is important (Turmel et al., 2014). Thus, removing residue, e.g., for fuel could affect cropland productivity and food security. As a result the farmers live in impoverished situation due to presence of both acute and transitory poverty. Because, the effects of degradation on land productivity; agriculture and livestock production had a negative effect on livelihoods of the community (Habtamu, et al., 2015). Biomass of the study site was highly impacted by repeatedly occurred severe drought, traditional farming practice and energy utilization pattern. The biomass production of the area is not sufficient to provide enough feed for livestock.
Discussants explained that land is being infertile and they could not be able to cover the consumption need of the household. About 97% of the surveyed households relate low productivity with loss of tree cover, which has several environmental benefit including erosion reduction and climate control, as they expressed (Figure 1). Deforestation causes drought and flooding, among others, leading to a decline in agricultural yields and food security (Berhanu, et al., 2017).
Utilization of biomass for energy could have multiple effects on livestock production. Accordingly, about 95% of surveyed respondents reported that the present energy need for fire wood has been provoking the challenges of livestock production and productivity in many dimensions such as loss of grass; increase the prevalence of disease, and access to water (Figure 1). Land degradation due to forest could reduce availability of forage and water. That means, farmers were facing stern challenge to found pasture and water for their animals. While challenge for grass was due to couple of problems such as land degradation and sacristy of grassing land, accessibility of water especially during the dry season was mainly due to land degradation that caused by clearing tree or due to the biomass was destroyed. The perceived climate change due to deforestation and land degradation could be less suitable for livestock. Example, temperature affects most of the critical factors of livestock production, such as water availability, animal production and reproduction, and animal health (mostly through heat stress) (IPCC, 2019). This created favorable conditions for the occurrence of animal disease and affected the health of livestock. Rojas-Downing, et al., (2017) livestock diseases are mostly affected by increases in temperature and precipitation variation. Due to various infectious animal diseases caused by climate change, farmers lost their livestock and pressurized to have only few, affecting their livelihood.
Water availability of the area is low, particularly in dry season, which is associated to increased surface runoff in rainy season resulting from land degradation due to, partly, removing forest and other biomass for fuel. In this regard, about 87% of informants reported access to water was the pressing challenges in the area, which was due to primary dependence of the rural dwellers for wood on biomass (Figure 1). FAO (2015) stated that forests play a crucial role in the partitioning of water into surface flow, subsurface flow, and evapotranspiration. In contrast, the removals of forest and other biomass strongly impair the hydrological functioning of the environment (Todd-Brown, et al., 2013). Thus, discussants explained that due to land degradation ponds and water points were progressively dried up in the area. Reis-Pereira, et al., (2014) and Chakravarty, et al., (2012) pointed out that any change in the original land use can result in significant alterations of the water balance components of a watershed.
The observed scarcity of water in the area affected their live in various aspects: farmers were pressed to travel distant area in search of water for their livestock and domestic consumption especially by women. It added double burden on the farmers’ livelihood through sharing their precious time and affecting their health. Water shortage affects crop production and livestock.
3.3.2. Implication of biomass energy utilization on household food insecurity
In the study area, there has been chronic food insecurity for more than three decades (Assefa et al., submitted). Focus group discussants and 98% of surveyed households indicated that land degradation partly due to utilization of biomass (fuel wood, charcoal, crop residue and animal dung) for energy contributed to the existing nasty food insecurity. As a result, farmers’ ability to feed own household from self-production was very low, which might be not more than six months per year. The remaining months would be covered by donor based food aid, in the area, which was the long-existed trend In particular, following the Great Ethiopian Famine of 1984-1985, for example, more than 5 million people, majority are from northern region, have received food aid in the country on annual basis, indicating a situation of chronic food insecurity (Aschale, 2012). The land degradation, partly, due to back warded biomass energy utilization contributes for food insecurity.
The constant supply of food aid for the poor farmers with the aim of filling the yearly food gap had been passed two periods. Before 2005 the support of food was offered with the central aim of humanitarian act, since that time the support was shaped to developmental forms. On the other word, the previous cater of food for the needy people in the area was primarily initiated by natural event mainly drought but the revised forms of support of food aid was aimed to reduce food insecurity through the developmental activities like watershed management practices through the model of food-for-work. In the revised approach of food aid the eligible household, ‘poor-of the-poor, could receive aid up on participating on developmental activities such as watershed management, which supposed to restore degraded land and perhaps improve the biomass energy supply. The food-for-work approach received great attention due to growing government, NGOs and development partners’ interest to restore degraded landscape.
Environmental rehabilitation as a strategy for delivering food relief seemed a good approach of using relief to development, but the productivity and quality of outputs were claimed to have generally poor and maintenance of established development activities, e.g., soil and water conservation structures and planted trees, is inadequate (Bishop & Hilhorst, 2010). This could be a bottleneck requiring improvement in monitoring.
3.3.3. Contribution of using traditional fuel for climate change
In the study area, the rural people depend on natural resources for their living. Primarily, to make food they plough land by converting the forest land in to agricultural land. Farmers depend on biomass to get energy to fulfill all their domestic energy need. During this time they cut tree to get fire wood and charcoal. Similarly, they also cut tree to construct house and to furnish their home with furniture. All these action leads for the production of carbon dioxide gases which is among the major gases of greenhouse gases and have high contribution for global climate change. Fuel wood, roots, agricultural residues and animal dung are responsible for high emissions of carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons and particulate matter (Kibria, 2015).
Of all these causes, we have a chance to mitigate our domestic contribution of carbon dioxide and the resultant climate change by renovating our energy dependence from the traditional biomass to clean, environmentally friendly, and modern renewable energy technologies systems. Renewable energy technologies provide an exceptional opportunity for mitigation of greenhouse gas emission and reducing global warming through substituting conventional energy sources (Panwar, et al., 2011). In this regard, unless we do not act immediately the costs of the climate impact will be enormous (WBU, 2009). In addition, embracing of modern energy forms are indispensable because it is capable of improving the living standards of billions of people, particularly in developing countries, who lack access to service or whose consumption levels are far below those of people in industrialized countries (Anderson, 2000).
3.4. Barriers to Adoption of Modern Energy Technologies
Discussants coined many challenges as that constrained to adopt alternative energy technologies. Accordingly, rural households indicated shortage of capital or finance, access, durability and awareness to adapt alternative energy technology were the major challenges to adopt. Explicitly, (1) high initial cost, (2) lack of accounting of externalities of conventional generation, (3) lack of data and information about resources, (4) challenge of integrating renewable energy technologies into the electricity grid, (5) subsidies for conventional generation, (6) lack of storage facilities, (7) inadequate capacity to build and monitor performance of renewables, and (8) impact on agricultural land use (Sathaye, et al., 2011). Detail of discussion results narrated as follows.
3.4.1. Shortage of capital
Different small alternative energy technologies that can be adopted by rural households are available in the market. Finance matters adoption of the technology. Majority, 98% of respondents across the study areas reported that shortage of finance was among the key barriers to adopt small scale modern energy technologies such as solar energy for lighting, solar energy consuming radio, and hand battery (Figure 2). Although modern renewable energy technologies that can reach by government through grid system such as biofuel, geothermal, wind, solar and hydropower energy, adopting easy technologies that can be built within the household level like biogas and small solar system for basic domestic needs including for cooking and lighting is still being impossible due to financial constraint. Moreover, due to lack of finance, the rural people were even not able to use the small solar system which can only serve for lighting. Quitzow, et al., (2016) stated that for most people in Africa, energy is inaccessible, unreliable, and unaffordable. Sathaye, et al., (2011) stated that higher initial cost of renewable energy technologies compared to conventional generation options hinders their large scale adoption particularly in developing countries, where cost is a prime concern.
Due to this the rural people still rely for their fuel demand on traditional biomass and that exposed their live to diverse contest include environmental, social and health problems. Smoke from the use of fuel wood and dung for cooking contributes to acute respiratory infections (Berhanu, et al., 2017), which is worse in poor countries, particularly on women who are responsible for cooking, due to indoor pollution where houses are not equipped with separate living and cooking places (Mazzoni, et al., 2003; Geissler et al., 2013).
3.4.2. Lack of access
Access to technology matters the adaptation characteristics of individuals. Discussants and 97% of surveyed households across North Wollo and Wag Hemera zone stated that access to alternative energy technologies lack in their community (Figure 2). That mean, the rural household in the study area have poor access of modern alternative energy for cooking, lighting and heating purposes. Energy access involves access to electricity and to clean fuels and technologies for cooking, which is commonly referred to as ‘clean cooking’ (UNEP, 2019). Societies that depend on traditional energy activities are found at the bottom rung of the energy ladder (UNCTAD, 2010). Access is a function of availability and affordability, while for energy to be considered available to a household, the household must be within the economic connection and supply range of the energy network or supplier, affordability refers to the ability of the household to pay the up-front connection cost (or first cost) and energy usage costs (Chaurey, et al., 2004). This result in deforestation and degradation of the land and led to face serious health problem.
Therefore, improving the access of alternative energy for all residential purpose has diverse benefit. Among overwhelming benefits, improving the productivity of land and food security, as the action indirectly helps to maintain soil fertility, could be the major. In addition, modern energy reduce indoor pollution, improved educational outcomes, school children will have access to lighting to study, improved health and potential reduction in rural–urban migration (Hafner, et al., 2018). In contrast, in towns near to the rural household, there are accesses to girded electric system although they use mainly for lighting and use wood and charcoal for cooking. Access concerns need to be understood in a local context and in most countries there is an obvious difference between electrification in the urban and rural areas, this is especially true in sub-Saharan Africa and South Asian region (Brew-Hammond, 2010).
Moreover, if access to renewable modern energy is created for rural biomass dependent households that will transform the entire situation and improve socioeconomic development of the poor. Access to energy is among the key elements for the economic and social developments of Ethiopia (FDRG MoWE, 2012), and in current societies, access to energy is considered as a major factor for sustainability in both developed and developing countries (Hafner, et al., 2018). On the other hand, if the experience of using of traditional fuel continue within this pattern and action will not be taken, the practice will put back the strong desire and efforts of internationally accepted sustainable development goal to realize sustainable development in the world through switching the pattern of energy use from traditional to new renewable energy consumption. The sustainable development goal seven seeks to ensure that energy is clean, affordable, available and accessible to all and this can be achieved with renewable energy source (Owusu & Asumadu-Sarkodie, 2016).
3.4.3. Durability problems
About 97% of respondents conveyed that although rural poor has been trying to adopt some small scale alternative energy technology lack of durability and robustness were the straining barriers (Figure 2). Moreover, discussants also stated durability of adaptive alternative energy technologies problem. For example, one of discussant farmers in Wolehi kebele asked a question “why technology producer are not reliable or committed to produce durable technology which can work for a long periods, e.g., solar panel? Currently, although, we didn’t that much adaptive enough but technology that we rarely bought were not durable. As a result we lost our scarce money”.
When rural farmers decide to adopt alternative energy sources they allocate from their poor capital which call all involved in technology innovation to produce and offer durable, easy to operate in rural context and relatively cheap in price. This may be another opportunity to energy technology producer to get feedback on their product and to contribute their part to protect the environment and enhance sustainable development. On the other hand, households or technology users were criticized for their extra concern about the durability, safety, and convenience of a new cooking device rather they lack adequate information on the negative health outcomes associated with inefficient combustion of solid fuels which has impeded the growth of market demand for clean cooking stoves and other alternative technologies (Getachew, et al., 2018).
3.4.4. Lack of awareness
Awareness to different alternative energy technologies in the market and their contribution to reduce burden on their forest resources were limited among the communities. About 93% of informants stated that although there were problems with financial capacity to adopt having poor awareness about the technologies advantage affect adoption (Figure 2). Awareness on to the overwhelming impact of biomass energy utilization on soil degradation, low crop productivity, food insecurity, low animal productivity and water scarcity were poor (REN-21, 2010).
3.5. Impact of traditional fuel consumption to sustainable livelihood
In the move to ensure sustainable livelihood all the capabilities, assets and activities required for a means of living are needed to ensure the sustainable situation for human being to cope with and recover from stress and shocks and maintain its capabilities and assets for the future generation. The high dependence of people on the biomass energy for domestic use could affect sustainable livelihood due to natural resource depletion and limitation for alternative activities, e.g., wood and metal works, pumping ground water for irrigation, that require energy.
However, deforestation in search of additional land for farming by cutting tree was the reason for natural resource depletion but continues day to day consumption of forest resource as fuel for domestic energy were highly affected the livelihood of rural people. This implies that all the practice to secure means of living was seriously affected the productive base for both the current and future generations. The practice opposes the widely accepted concept and definition of the World Commission on Environment and Development “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (WCED, 1987; Bojo et al., 1992).
Due to deforestation, rural household income reduced and resulted in holistic poverty because it affected all the income sources of the households. Since, the only means of their livelihood, which include livestock and crop productions, were seriously affected because of scarcity to pasture, water, soil fertility, timely rainfall, and available moisture content of the area were seriously impacted. These calls to take dramatic action on the approach to shift from the traditional way of living to modern fashion with choose of energy alternatives. Because renewable technologies are considered as clean sources of energy and optimal use of these resources decreases environmental impacts, produces minimum secondary waste and are sustainable based on the current and future economic and social needs (Owusu & Asumadu-Sarkodie, 2016). Accordingly, the shift from traditional energy use to modern renewable forms of energy source contributes not only limited to reducing impact on natural environment rather benefits the struggle to ensure food security and eradicate absolute poverty.
Therefore, the start to shift in to modern energy must began with the task to enhance the rehabilitation efforts and urge to augment an adaptive capacity of the rural household to any natural event like drought and damaging flood. Because the implication of working on rehabilitation effort and enhancing adaptive capacity means replacing the plant in place of a tree that catted to address the traditional fuel need and building the financial capacity to adopt modern new renewable energy technology respectively. Sawin, et al., (2016) noted that societies around the world are on the verge of a profound and urgently necessary transformation in the way they produce and use energy. UN, (2011) because they understood that even though it’s convenient to use coal, oil, and natural gas for meeting their energy needs, they have a limited supply of these fuels on the Earth and eventually they will run out since the present patterns of use of those nonrenewable sources of energy are much more rapidly than they are being created.
Hence, huge investments are needed in additional and replacement capacity for producing, converting, transporting and distributing energy in developing countries to meet the current and future needs of renewable energy option (OECD, 2007). Besides, identified three inter-linked objectives that are necessary for long-term sustainable development in the world in relation to access to energy by the Sustainable Energy for All Initiative also confirms the importance of taking urgent action to ensure sustainable development and eradicate poverty. These includes ensure universal access to modern energy services; double the rate of improvement in energy efficiency; and double the share of renewable energy in the global energy mix (Vezzoli, et al., 2018).