Ethnomedicinal Study of Medicinal Plants Used by Mizo Tribes in Champhai District of Mizoram, India.

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-1021345/v1

PDF

Research Article

Ethnomedicinal Study of Medicinal Plants Used by Mizo Tribes in Champhai District of Mizoram, India.

https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-1021345/v1

This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License

Journal Publication

published 24 Mar, 2022

Read the published version in Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine →

You are reading this latest preprint version

Background

Medicinal plants have been used countless times for curing diseases mainly in developing countries. They are easily available with little to no side effects when compared to modern medicine. This manuscript encompasses information on ethnomedicinal plants in Champhai district, located in the North East Region (NER) of India. The region lies within Indo-Burma biodiversity hotspot. This study will be the first quantitative report on the ethnomedicinal plants used by the local tribes of this region. Knowledge of medicinal plants is mostly acquired by word of mouth and the knowledge is dying among the local youths with the prevalence of modern medicine. Hence, there is urgency in deciphering and recording such information.

Methods

Information was gathered through interviews with 200 informants across 15 villages of the Champhai District. From the data obtained, we calculated the Used Report (UR), Frequency of Citation (FC) and Informant Consensus Factor (F_ic) for all the plant species. Secondary data was obtained from scientific databases such as Pubmed, Sci Finder and Science Direct. The scientific name of the plants were matched and arranged in consultation with the working list of all plant species (http://www.theplantlist.org ).

Results

93 plant species from 53 families were recorded. The most common families are Euphorbiaceae and Asteraceae with six and five species representatives respectively. Leaves were the most frequently used part of a plant and were usually used in the form of decoction. The plant species with the highest used report (UR) were Curcuma longa L. (136 FC) and Flueggea virosa (126 FC). The main illness categories as per Frequency of citation were Muscle/Bone Problem (0.962 F_ic), Gastro-intestinal Disease (0.956 F_ic) and Skin Care (0.953 F_ic).

Conclusion

The people of Mizoram living in the Champhai district have an immense knowledge of ethnomedicinal plants. There are no new adverse effects recorded. We observed that there is a scope of scientific validation of 10 plant species for their pharmacological activity and 13 species for the phytochemical characterization or isolation of the phytochemicals. This might pave the path for developing a scientifically validated botanical or lead to semisyntheic derivatives intended for modern medicine.

Integrative & Complementary Medicine

Agricultural Engineering

Cultural Studies

Ayurveda

Champhai

Ethnomedicinal

Indo-Burma Hotspot

Tribal.

Plants have been known to be a major source of diverse chemical compounds possessing both medicinal properties and commercial value. There have been several reports on medicinal plants as a source for drug discovery. However, new diseases will likely continue to emerge along with drug-resistant pathogens. This dynamic nature of pathogens has constantly challenged researchers to look for alternatives. The past few decades have witnessed the surge in ethnomedicinal plant research [1], one of the reasons being that the natural products have played an important role in the development of drugs, contributing more than 50% of clinical drugs in the pharmaceutical industry [2]. Further, the rapid growth in human population has raised the demand which inturn has increased the quest for novel plant resources, triggering a threat to natural resources [3].

Traditional knowledge and practices of herbal remedies have been passed on to new generations over the centuries and will continue to do so, with some variations taking place every generation. From the 19th century till date, plants have become the main source for therapeutic regimes and traditional practices are proven to have little known side effects besides their low cost and easy availability. India has been well known worldwide for its indigenous traditional pieces of knowledge and practices from ancient times, through different systems of medicine such as Ayurveda, Siddha and Unani [4]. Although more than 427 tribal communities are having vast diversity of ancient traditions, still there has been criticism of ethnomedicines due to regional variation, political and socio-economic challenges [5]. Reports are stating that several plants have been increasingly utilised by the indigenous people of India [1]. Generally, in India, it was estimated that 6,000 flora are used in traditional and herbal medicine which represent about 75% of the needs of the third world and meanwhile 3,000 plants were officially acknowledged due to their medicinal values [6].

The healthcare system of India witnesses a wide variation encompassing urban and rural populations which rely on both modern and traditional systems of medicine. The recently implemented Ayushman Bharat Pradhan Mantri Jan Arogya Yojana from the Commonwealth Fund enables cashless secondary and tertiary care at private facilities. [7]. besides, health insurance schemes also exist for institutions and factories. Catering to the huge population has its limitations and thus many of the ailments are treated either by traditional healers or through traditional knowledge and practices especially in remote areas. One such state in the North-Eastern part of India is Mizoram.

The ethnomedicinal usages [8–11] and the flora [12, 13] in the state of Mizoram though has been previously reported, however, there is still a scope considering the ethnomedicinal knowledge of the diverse tribes within the state. Hence, through the present manuscript, we aim to document the ethnomedicinal practices involving medicinal plants of the Champhai district of Mizoram, India. Their practical knowledge has been established based on more than a century of credence and observation.

Mizoram lies within the Indo-Burma biodiversity hotspot region and shares two international borders with Bangladesh in the west and Myanmar in the east. According to Champion and Seth (1968), Mizoram forests are classified into Tropical semi-evergreen forests, tropical wet evergreen forests and mountain sub-tropical pine forests [14]. The study area, i.e., the Champhai district is classified as a rural area where health care facilities are relatively poor which drives the people to rely on traditional medicines. The traditional healers using medicinal plant-based formulations for various ailments indicate that traditional medicines are still one of the mainstays in their contemporary health care. It is felt that prospection and research on the medicinal plants that play such an important role in the health care of Mizo tribes need a more intensified effort.

Description of study Area

Champhai is one of the 8 districts in Mizoram, amidst the North East Region of India. It is located in the eastern part of Mizoram, internationally bordered by Myanmar and therefore becoming the main gate of trading for India and Myanmar. It lies between 23.456°N latitude and 93.328°E longitude. The average annual rainfall is approximately 1814 mm and the temperature remains around 18.6°C which is slightly colder than the rest of the state during winter. The total land area is 3185.83 sq kilometres at an elevation around 1,678 m above sea level, population density is 10 per sq kilometres (32,734). According to an official Census (2011), Champhai reported a population of 1.26 lakhs, of which male and female were 62,357 and 63,388 respectively [15, 16]. The study area was divided into 15 village council areas (Vengthlang, Vengthlang North, Venglai, Vengsang, Electric veng, Kanan, Kahrawt, Bethel, New Champhai, Zotlang, Hmunhmeltha, Tualcheng, Ngopa, Khawzawl and East Lungdar) for extensive data collection (Fig. 1). The majority of people living in this area are Mizo tribe and use the Mizo dialect in common.

Investigative method

In the field study, formal questionnaires were distributed to each participant while having face to face interviews at their residence. At least 16 people were interviewed in each village council area. Only those people who were skilled in the art of preparing medicines either for their families or their neighbourhood were considered for the interaction. The interactions primarily focussed on their experience, type of dosage form, duration of usage, any adverse effects observed and the source of their knowledge about the plant and their parts used. This information was then correlated with the scientific data curated from related databases (Pubmed, SciFinder and Science Direct). In most of the cases, the voucher specimens were deposited (Herbarium, Mizoram University, Aizawl, Mizoram, India) for their authentication and archiving.

Characteristics of demographic data

This demonstrated the socio-economic information of the informant including qualities like age, sex, education level and occupation. 200 persons between the ages group of 18-71 years were interviewed, of which 112 and 82 were males and females respectively. Respondents belonged to various professions while some were students. The feature of demographical characteristics obtained in the study is tabulated below (Table 1).

Quantitative analysis

Frequency of citation (FC)

Frequency of citation was used to further examine the primary data by finding the sum of total citations/usage reports for a particular species. The usage report is the quotation of one plant by an informant [17].

Use Value

Use Value or UV is used to express the correlative importance of each particular plant species locally known and was calculated by the following equation [18].

Where ‘U_i’ represents the number of citations of each species by the informants and ‘n’ represents the total number of informants in the study area. The larger the number of citations, the greater is the use-value.

Informant Consensus Factor

F_ic or ICF is used to represent the consistency of the information among the informants, indicating whether there was shared knowledge and concurrence in the use of plants for treating the ailment category amongst the plant’s users in the study area. It was calculated by the following equation [19].

Where ‘N_ur’ refers to the number of users reports in each illness category and ‘N_t’ refers to the number of plant species used for a particular illness category by all the informants.

Demographic characteristics

All the 200 respondents were randomly selected from 15 village council areas interviewing at least 16 persons in each area with no equal separation of male-female ratio. Amongst them, the elderly in their seventies and above occupied 6.5% only, while people between 31-50 years old occupied 34.5%. The average age among the informants was 54 years. Mizoram is the second most literate state in the country ounds(2011 census) and all the informants were literate having at least primary school level education. Out of the total informants, 32.5% were engaged in government jobs like teachers, officers, while 35% were self-employed like farmers, carpenters, skilled workers, small businesses and the rest 32.5% of the informants were unemployed including students and housewives (Table 1).

Table 1

Demographic characteristics of informants (n = 200)
Demographic characteristics
Age	Number	In percent (%)
18-30	42	21
31-50	69	34.5
51-70	76	38
71 above	13	6.5
Sex
Male	112	56
Female	88	44
Educational level
Primary	30	15
Middle	44	22
High School	56	28
Higher Secondary	32	16
University	38	19
Occupation
Self Employed (farmer, carpenter, bussiness)	70	35
Govt. Employed (teacher, bank, officer)	65	32.5
Unemployed Student, housewives)	65	32.5

Taxonomy Identification

In the present study, 93 medicinal plant species belonging to 53 families have been reported for treating various kinds of ailments. The most prominent families were Euphorbiaceae with 6 plant species followed by Asteraceae with 5 plant species and 4 species each among Cucurbitaceae and Zingiberaceae. Liliaceae, Fabaceae, Verbenaceae, Solanaceae, Rutaceae, Anacardiaceae are with 3 species each while Orchidaceae, Combrethaceae Theaceae, Arecaceae, Apocynaceae, Musaceae, Rubiaceae, Schrophulariaceae, Lamiaceace, Mimosaceae, Smilacaceae are with 2 species each and other 34 families with one species each as shown in Table 2. The high usage report of this large family like Euphorbiaceae (6 species), Asteraceae (5 species) and Zingiberaceae (4 species) occupied 10.8%, 9.2% and 8.35% of the total used report respectively indicating that most people in the study area are inclined to use plants that are easily available and abundant around them (Table 2).

Table 2

Family with their used report and in percent
Family	No of species	No of used report	%
Liliaceae	3	76	2.8
Apocynaceae	2	53	1.95
Bromoliaceae	1	49	1.8
Ochidaceae	2	14	0.52
Combretaceae	2	55	1.66
Euphorbiaceae	6	294	10.8
Meliaceae	2	54	1.99
Begoniaceae	1	37	1.36
Cucurbitaceae	4	82	3.02
Amarathaceae	1	15	0.55
Betuliaceae	1	7	0.26
Fabaceae	3	56	2.06
Verbenaceae	3	78	2.87
Theaceae	2	28	1.03
Cannabinaceae	1	36	1.32
Apiaceae	1	29	1.07
Solanaceae	3	83	3.05
Caricaceae	1	53	1.95
Fagaceae	1	17	0.63
Zingiberaceae	4	227	8.35
Asteraceae	5	250	9.2
Rutaceae	3	120	4.42
Araceae	1	2	0.07
Dilleniaceae	1	22	0.81
Discoreaceae	1	27	0.99
Caryophyllaceae	1	28	1.03
Eleagnaceae	1	31	1.14
Areaceae	2	86	3.17
Musaceae	3	80	2.94
Rubiaceae	2	38	1.4
Protiaceae	1	15	0.55
Malvaceae	1	4	0.15
Saurauraceae	1	16	0.59
Convulvulaceae	1	37	1.36
Rosaceae	1	14	0.52
Schrophulariaceae	2	48	1.77
Campanulaceae	1	25	0.92
Myrsinaceae	1	4	0.15
Magnoliaceae	1	18	0.66
Anacardiaceae	3	79	2.91
Lamiaceae	2	40	1.47
Clusiaceae	1	18	0.66
Mimosaceae	2	53	1.95
Moraceae	1	2	0.07
Bignoliaceae	1	37	1.36
Pandanaceae	1	24	0.88
Phyllanthaceae	1	48	1.77
Plantaginaceae	1	36	1.32
Myrtaceae	1	98	3.61
Polypodiaceae	1	12	0.44
Punicaceae	1	31	1.14
Smilacaceae	2	26	0.96
Poaceae	1	15	0.55

Frequency of usage of parts of plants

The most commonly used medicinal plants fell under herbs (35.5%) followed by trees (33.3%), shurbs (18.3%) and creepers (12.9%) as shown in (Fig. 3.). Amongst the parts, leaves, fruits and barks were mainly utilised by the informants. (Fig. 4.) A detailed analysis concluded that leaves (47%) followed by fruits (14%), barks (11%), seeds (10%), rhizomes (6%), stems (4%), young shoot (2%), oil (1%) and in some cases the whole plant (3%) were used for ethnomedicinal purposes.

Mode of preparation and administration

The mode of formulation preparation or administration was observed to be in the form of decoction (44.2%) followed by paste (23%), raw (19.5%), juice (9.73%), powder (1.77%) and others like maceration and oil (1.77%) (Fig. 5.).

Table 3

List of plant species with their Use Value (UV)
Sl. No.	Species Name; Voucher No	Family Name	Local Name	^aHabit	^bPart Use	Mode of administration	Ailments & UR	FC	UV	Isolated Chemical Compounds	Bioactivity
1	Allium cepa Linn. (HAMP20045)	Liliaceae	Purun sen	H	Rt (Bulb)	Raw	Hair care (12), headache (1)	13	0.065	S-alk(en)yl-substituted cysteine sulphoxides, quercetin, kaempferol [20]	Antioxidant, appetizer Antimicrobial, Hypertension, hair regrowth [21–23]
2.	Allium sativum L. (HAMP20046)	Liliaceae	Purun var	H	Rt (Bulb)	Raw	Tension (10), toothache (2), cold (12), pimple (7)	31	0.155	S-allyl-cysteine, Allyl thiosulfinate (Allicin), S-ally-mercapto cysteine [24, 25]	Fever, hypertension, antitumor, antioxidant, antimicrobial, tooth disease, immune boost, etc. [26–28]
3	Aloe vera (L.) Burm.f. (HAMP20047)	Liliaceae	Liliaceae	H	Lf	Raw	Burn (21), Stomachache (2), skin care (9)	32	0.16	Vitamin E, Sulfuric acid, butyl heptadecylic ester, 1-Tetradecyne [29]	Antimicrobial, anti- inflammatory, laxative, antidiarrhea, wound healing, antiaging, antioxidant, etc. [30–32]
4	Alstonia scholaris (L.) R. Br. (HAMP20006)	Apocynaceae	Thuamriat	T	Br	Decoction	Ulcer (15)	15	0.075	Alstonine, picrinine, akuammicine, echitamine [33]	Antimicrobial, anti-asthmatic, antioxidant, anti-ulcers, anticancer, rheumatic, inflammatory, wound healing, etc [34, 35]
5	Ananas comosus (L.) Merr. (HAMP20019)	Bromeliaceae	Lakhuihthei	Sh	Lf, Fr	Raw, paste	Ulcer (12), seizure (1), Hypertension (10), urinary infection (16), lung disease (10)	49	0.245	1-O-feruloylglycerol, tricin, 2, 4-dichlorobenzoic acid, etc [36]	Anti-inflammatory, anti-thrombotic, antioxidant, antiedematous, anthelminthic, diuretic, rheumatoid, anticancer, antimicrobial, etc [37, 38]
6	Anoectochilus brevilabris Lindl. (HAMP20062)	Orchidaceae	Hnah mawi	H	Lf	Paste	Pile problem (12)	12	0.06	Not reported	Not reported
7	Anogeissus acuminata (Roxb. ex DC.) Wall. Ex Guillem. &Perr. (HAMP20023)	Combretaceae	Zairum	T	Br	Decoction,	Ulcer (26)	26	0.13	Castamollilin, Grandinin, (-)-Secoisolariciresinol, 2,3-bis-(4-Hydroxybenzyl butadiene [39]	Hypoglycemic, wound healing, cytoxicity, antibacterial, etc [40–42]
8	Aporosa octandra (Buch-Ham. ex D. Don) Vickery (HAMP20035)	Euphorbiaceae	Chhawntual	T	Lf, Br	Decoction	Ulcer (5), uterus problem (11)	16	0.08	2-Methyl-3-en-butyl-cyclohexyl Phthalate, (R)-Coclaurine (AO-5) [43]	Antioxidant, anthelmintic, oxidative stress, D-galactose induce protectivity, etc [44, 45]
9	Azadirachta indica A. Juss (HAMP20052)	Meliaceae	Neem	T	Lf	Decoction	Malaria (16), jaundice (8)	24	0.12	Diepoxyazadirol, flowerine, flowerone, O-methylazadir-onolide [46]	Immunostimulant, antiviral, analgesic, anti-inflammatory, antiulcer, antioxidant, antimicrobial, hepatoprotective, antimalarial, antipyretic, hypoglycemic, etc [47]
10	Begonia inflata C.B. Clark. (HAMP20016)	Begoniaceae	Sekhupthur	H, Cr	Lf	Paste, juice	Pile problem (12), diarrhea (11), dysentery (14)	37	0.185	Not reported	Not reported
11	Benincasa hispida (Thunb.) Cogn. (HAMP20028)	Cucurbitaceae	Maipawl	H, Cr	Fr	Decoction	Stomach problem (4), digestion (10), diarrhoea (15)	29	0.145	Pentanoic acid, 5-hydroxy-2,4- dibutyl phenyl esters, Palmitic acid, 9,12-Octadeca-dienylchloride [48]	Anti-obesity; anti-ulcer; anti-inflammatory; antioxidant; anti-diarrheal; anxiolytic; antidiabetic, antinociceptive, etc [49, 50]
12	Beta vulgaris L. (HAMP20001)	Amaranthaceae	Beet root	H	Rh	Raw, juice	Aneamia (3), immuno- booster (8), cancer (4)	15	0.075	Apigenin, Luteolin, Isoscutellarein 7-O-glucosyl, 8-O-xylosid, Caffeoyl-6-(3,4-dihydroxy benzoyl) β-D-glucoside [51]	Antioxidant, anticancer, hepatoprotective, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, anti-hypertension, hypoglycemic [52–54]
13	Betula alnoides Buch-Ham. ex D. Don (HAMP20017)	Betulaceae	Hriang	T	Lf	Paste	Tooth paste (7)	7	0.035	α-pinene; a-terpineol; limonene; camphor; β-pinene [55]	Cytotoxicity, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antimicrobial, etc. [2, 56]
14	Bischofia javanica Blume (HAMP20036)	Euphorbiaceae	Khuang thli	T	Lf	Paste	Toothache (13)	13	0.065	3,4-dihydroxyphenylethyl alcohol, isotachioside, catechin, epicatechin, gallocatechin [57]	Antimicrobial, antiulcer, cytoxicity, antidysentry, anthelminthic, etc. [58, 59]
15	Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp. (HAMP20041)	Fabaceae	Behliang	Sh	Lf	Decoction	Jaundice (25), intestinal worms (3)	28	0.14	3,5-bis1,1-dimethylethyl, Tetradecanoic acid, allyl hexadecyl, ester, n-Hexadecanoic acid [60]	Antimicrobial, antidiabetic, antioxidant, glycemic, anthelmintic, hepatoprotective, etc. [61]
16	Callicarpa arborea Roxb. (HAMP20087)	Verbenaceae	Hnah kiah	T	Lf, Br	Decoction	Stomach ache (9), diabetes (16), convulsion (7)	32	0.16	Martynoside, Isomartynoside, Ursolic acid, Antiarol rutinoside [62]	Antioxidant, antimicrobial, analgesic, anti-inflammatory, neuroprotective, antidiabetic, etc. [62]
17	Camellia sinensis (L.) Kuntze (HAMP20082)	Theaceae	Thingpuife	Sh	Lf	Raw, Decoction	Toothace (7), itchy eye (7)	14	0.07	Caffeine, Theobromine, Gallic acid, Ampelopsin, epicatechin-3-O-gallate, catechin-3-O-gallate [63]	Antimicrobial, tooth decay, antioxidant, anticancer, anti-obesity, antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory, etc. [64, 65]
18	Cannabis sativa L. (HAMP20021)	Cannabinacae	Trip/ Kanza	H	Lf	Raw,	Stomach ache (12), diarrhea (24)	36	0.18	Cannabigerol, cannabichromene, cannabidiol, cannabisativa, delta 9-Tetrahydrocannabinol [66]	Antioxidant, anti-allergic, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, anti-tumour, anti-diabetic, antibiotic [67]
19	Centella asiatica (L.) Urb. (HAMP20005)	Apiaceae	Darbengbur /lambak	H	WP	Decoction	Stomach ache (8), urinary infection (17), kidney disease (2), eye pain (2)	29	0.145	Centellin, asiaticin, centellicin [68]	Ati-ulcer, neuroprotective, antidepressant, anticonvulsion, immunostimulating, antioxidant, antibacterial, kidney injury protectivity, etc [69–71]
20	Capsicum annuum L. (HAMP20084)	Solanaceae	Hmarhcha	H	Fr	Paste	Wasp sting (9), burn (3), toothache (4), boil (2)	18	0.09	Ascorbic acids, quercetin, luteolin, chrysoeriol, hydroxycinnamic acids [72]	Anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antiviral, anticancer, analgesic, etc. [73]
21	Carica papaya L. (HAMP20026)	Caricaceae	Thingfanghma	T	Lf, Fr sap	Paste, raw	Tonsil (1), face pack (3), cancer (16), diabetes (11), dog bite (17), milk booster in mother (5)	53	0.265	Benzyl-β-d glucoside, β-sistosterol, β-sistosterol, oleic acids [74]	Antimalaria, antidiuretic, antimicrobial, anthelminthic, hepatoprotective, immunomodulatory, etc. [75, 76]
22	Castanopsis tribuloides (Sm.) A. DC. (HAMP20044)	Fagaceae	Thingsia	T	Br	Paste	Toothache (17)	17	0.085	Not reported	Antioxidant [77]
23	Catharanthus roseus (L.) G. Don (HAMP20007)	Apocynaceae	Kumtluang	T	Lf	Decoction	Hypertension (18), diabetes (20)	38	0.19	4-O-caffeoylquinic acid, quercetin-3- O-(6-O-rhamnosyl-glucoside), kaempferol-3-O- (6-O-rhamnosyl-glucoside) [78]	Antihypercholesterollemi, antideuretic, antibacterial, antimalaria, antiviral, cytotoxic, antidiabetic, antihyperglycemic antidiarrheal, antioxidant, anthelminthic, etc [79, 80]
24	Cheilocostus speciosus (J. Koenig) C.D. Specht (HAMP20090)	Zingiberaceae	Sumbul	Sh	Rh	Decoction	Kidney disease (5), urinary problem (16), stomach ache (18)	39	0.195	24-hydroxytriacontan-26-one, sitosterol, cyloartanol, methyl triacontanoate [81]	Antifungal, insecticidal, antioxidant [82, 83]
25	Chromoleana odorata (L.) R.M. King & H. Rob. (HAMP20011)	Asteraceae	Tlangsam	H	Lf	Decoction, raw	Kidney disease (18), diarrhea (13), stomach, ache (8), jaundice (14), wound (34)	87	0.435	α & β-pinenes,1,8-Cineole, β-Calacorene, β-Copaen-4α-ol [84]	Antipyretic, analgesic, anti-inflammatory, antispasmodiac, antimalaria, antioxidant, antimicrobial, etc [85, 86]
26	Citrus aurantiifolia (Christm.) Swingle (HAMP20074)	Rutaceae	Champara	T	Fr	Juice	Stomach problem (7), digestion (9)	16	0.08	Pinene, Sabinene limonene, Myrcene, Telinene [87]	Antimicrobial, antioxidant, antiobesity, anthelminthic [87, 89]
27	Citrus maxima (Burm.) Merr. (HAMP20075)	Rutaceae	Sertawk	Sh	S	Raw	Hypertension (36)	36	0.18	Naringenin,5,7-dihydroxylcoumarin, 1, 3,5-trihydroxyhenzene, xanthotoxol [90]	Antimicrobial, analgesic, antioxidant, anti-obesity, anti-inflammatory, etc [91–93]
28	Citrus limon (L.) Osbeck (HAMP20076)	Rutaceae	Nimbu	T	Fr	Juice	Stomach problem (24), digestion (44)	68	0.34	Ascorbic acid, y-Aminobutyric acid, alanine, aspartic acid, arginine [94]	Anticancer, antiparasitic anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, [95]
29	Clerodendrum glandulosum Lindl. (HAMP20088)	Verbenaceae	Phuihnam	Sh	Lf	Decoction	Hypertension (44)	44	0.22	Strongyloster, lupeol, n hentriacontane, palmitic acid, 2-pentadecyn-1-ol, hexacosane, vitamin E [96]	2-pentadecyn-1-ol, hexacosane, vitamin E [96]
30	Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott (HAMP20008)	Araceae	Dawl	H	St sap	Juice	Vaginal discharge/ Lochia (2)	2	0.01	14α-methyl-5α-cholesta-9, 24-diene-3b, 7α-diol; 9, 12, cyanidin 3-glucoside; 9, 12, 13-trihydroxy-(E)- 10-octadecenoic acid [97]	Antihepatotoxicity, anthelminthic, anticancer, antimicrobial, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, etc. [99–100]
31	Combretum wallichii DC (HAMP20024)	Combretaceae	Leihruisen	Sh	Sh	Raw	Tonsil (19)	19	0.095	Not reported	Anthelminthic [101]
32	Crassocephalum crepidioides (Benth.) S. Moore (HAMP20012)	Asteraceae	Buar thau	H	Lf	Paste	Wound bleeding (14)	14	0.07	(E)-β-farnesene, α-humulene, cis-β-guaiene, α-bulnesene [102]	Anti-tumour, cytoxicity, antidiabetic [103, 104]
33	Cucurbita maxima Duchesne (HAMP20029)	Cucurbitaceae	Mai	H, Cr	S	Raw	Instestinl worm (15)	15	0.075	Oleic acid, linoleic acid, palmitic acid, caffeic, syringic, vanillic, p-coumaric [105]	Antidiabetic, anticancer, antiobesity, antihelmintic, cytotoxicity, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, anti-parasitic [106]
34	Curcuma ceasia Roxb. (HAMP20091)	Zingiberaceae	Ailaidum	H	Rh	Raw, juice	Stomach ache (4), diarrhea (18)	22	0.11	α, β-pineneeucalyptol, camphor, camphene, gallic acid, quercetin [107]	Antimicrobial, analgesic, antioxidant, antiulcer, antimutagenic, anti-asthmatic, anthelminthic, etc. [108]
35	Curcuma longa L. (HAMP20092)	Zingiberaceae	Aieng	H	Rh	Powder, juice	Ulcer (67), diarrhea (4), derma care (30), stomach ache (35)	136	0.68	Curcumin, ar-turmerone, β-sesquiphellandrene, curcumenol [109]	Antimicrobial, anticancer gastrointestinal and respiratory disorder, anti-inflammatory, anti-diabetic, anti-allergic, hepatoprotective, anti-dermatophytic, neuroprotective, etc. [110]
36	Cucumis sativus L.h (HAMP20030)	Cucurbitaceae	Fanghma	H, Cr	Lf	Decoction, raw	Malaria (8), derma care (17)	25	0.125	Myristic acid, karounidiol, avenasterol, palmitoleic acid, alpha-linolenic acid [111]	Antimicrobial, antiulcer, antitumour, wound healing, hypoglycemic, hypolipidemic, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, etc. [112]
37	Dichrocephala integrifolia (L.f.) Kuntze (HAMP20013)	Asteraceae	Vawkek tumtual	H	Lf	Decoction	Kidney disease (24)	24	0.12	Stearic acid, stigmasta-7,22-dien-3-ol, epifriedelanol, Methyl stearate, tritetracontane [113]	Antimicrobial, cytotoxity, antidiarhoeal, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, neuroprotectivity [114–117]
38	Dilllenia pentagyna Roxb. (HAMP20032)	Dilleniaceae	Kaihzawl	T	Lf, Br	Decoction	Diarrhea (21), kidney disease (1)	22	0.11	Dillenetin, betunaldehyde, betulinic acid, quercetin, kaempferol glucoside, lupeol [118]	Antimicrobial, antiviral antioxidant, anticancer, antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory, [118]
39	Dioscorea alata L. (HAMP20033)	Discoreaceae	Bachhim	H, Cr	Fr	Decoction	Cancer (27)	27	0.135	Hydro-Q9 chromene, γ-tocopherol-9, 1-feruloylglycerol, RRR-α-tocopherol [119]	Antimicrobial, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, etc. [120, 121]
40	Drymaria cordata (L.) Willd. ex Schult. (HAMP20027)	Caryophyllaceae	Changkal rit	H, Cr	Lf	Decoction, paste	Rheumatism (24), dysentery (4)	28	0.14	Stigmasterol, cerebroside [122]	Analgesic, anxiolytic, antipyretic, antitussive, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory [122]
41	Dysoxylum excelsum Blume. (HAMP20051)	Meliaceae	Thingthupui	T	YS	Decoction	Diarrhea (18), hyper tension (12)	30	0.15	Isodauc-6-ene-10β,14-diol; 4-epi-isodauc-6-ene-10β,14-diol; 4-epi-6α,10β-dihydroxy-artabotrol [123]	Not reported
42	Elaeagnus caudata Schltdl. ex Momiy. (HAMP20034)	Elaegnaceae	Sarzuk	T	Lf	Decoction	Vaginal discharge/ Lochia (31)	31	0.155	Not reported	Expelling placenta, miscarriage, jaundice [124, 125]
43	Elaeis guineensis Jacq. (HAMP20009)	Arecaceae	Oil palm	T	Oil	Oil	Wound (1), burn (1), hair care (3)	5	0.025	3-isobutyl-2-methoxypyrazine; acetoin; 2-acetyl-1-pyrroline; ethyl hexanoate; 3-methylbutyl xacetate [126]	Antioxidant, wound healing, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, cardiovascular effect, antidiabetic, anticancer, etc. [127, 128]
44	Embelia vestita Roxb. (HAMP20010)	Arecaceae	Tling	Sh	Lf	Decoction	Measles (16), chickenpox (65)	81	0.405	Not reported	Not reported
45	Ensete glaucum (Roxb.) Cheesman (HAMP20057)	Musaceae	Saisu	H	St	Decoction	Nephrolithiasis (34)	34	0.17	Not reported	Not reported
46	Ensete superbum (Roxb.) Cheesman (HAMP20058)	Musaceae	Changel/ Tumbu	H	St sap, Fr	Juice	Snake bite (6), kidney disease (1), diabetes (4), WBC deficiency (23)	34	0.17	Pentadecanoic acid; 4H-Pyran-4-one, 2,3-dihydro-3, 5-dihydroxy-6-methyl-; 2-Furancarboxaldehyde, 5-(hydroxymethyl) [129]	Kidney stone preventivity, antioxidant, etc. [130]
47	Erythrina stricta Roxb. (HAMP20042)	Fabaceae	Fartuah	T	Br	Decoction	Ulcer (8), kidney disease (2)	10	0.05	β-caryophyllene; δ-cadenine; alpinum isoflavone; obovatin; isovanillin [131]	Antimicrobial, epilepsy, antioxidant, leprosy, anti-inflammatory, etc [132, 133]
48	Eulophia nuda Lindl. (HAMP20062)	Orchidaceae	Nauban	H	WP	Decoction	Diarrhoea (2)	2	0.01	Eulophiol;3,4-dihydroxy-3,5,5- trimethoxybibenzyl; nudol; lupeol [134]	Antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, cytotoxic, antioxidant, anticancer, antiasthmatic/ antibronchitis [134, 135]
49	Euphorbia millii Des Moul. (HAMP20037)	Euphorbiaceae	Hlinglukhum	H	Lf	Raw	Diarrhea (52)	52	0.26	Abruquinone B; eremopetasitenin A; ellagic acid; isopetasoside; 7,8-Dihydroxycoumarin; [136]	Antimicrobial, antioxidant, cytoxicity, antinociceptive, anthelmintic, etc. [137, 138]
50	Euphorbia royleana Boiss. (HAMP20038)	Euphorbiaceae	Chawng	Sh	Lf sap	Juice	Otorrhoea (38)	38	0.19	Antiquorine A; Eurifoloid D; sandaracopimaradienolal; 15-isopimaradien-18-a [139]	Antitumour, anti-arthritic, antimicrobial, antioxidant, cytotoxicity, anti-inflammatory, etc [140, 141]
51	Flueggea virosa (Roxb. ex Willd.) Royle (HAMP20039)	Euphorbiaceae	Saisiak	Sh	Lf	Decoction	Diabetes (59), stomach ache (17), chicken pox (50)	126	0.63	11-O-acetyl bergenin; gallic acid; virosecurinine; kaempferol; β-sitosterol; quercetin [142]	Anti-inflammatory, anti-pyretic, anti-hepatitis C, etc. [143, 144]
52	Gomphogyne cissiformis Griff. (HAMP20031)	Cucurbitaceae	Lalruanga dawi bur	H, Cr	Fr	Juice	Hypertension (6), diabetes (7)	13	0.065	Not reported	Not reported
53	Hedyotis scandens Roxb. (HAMP20072)	Rubiaceae	Kelhnam tur	H	Lf	Decoction	Kidney disease (4), pain relief (7), diabetes (10)	21	0.105	Hedyotoside A; hedyotoside B; hedyotoside C, D & E [145]	Antimicrobial, abdominal pain [146, 147]
54	Helicia robusta (Roxb.) R.Br. ex Blume (HAMP20069)	Protiaceae	Pasal-taka-za	T	Lf	Decoction	Placenta discharge (6), stomach pain (8), kidney disorder (1)	15	0.075	Not reported	Not reported
55	Hibiscus sinensis Mill. (HAMP20052)	Malvaceae	Midum par	Sh	Lf	Paste	Boil (4)	4	0.02	Quercetin-3,5-diglucoside, undecanoic acid, cyanidin chorides, rachidic acid, cyanin [148]	Antioxidant, antipyretic, antimicrobial, antifertility, anticonvulsive, etc. [148, 149]
56	Houttuynia cordata Thunb. (HAMP20077)	Saurauraceae	Ui thinthang	H	Lf	Juice	Sainus problem (16)	16	0.08	Quercetin-3-O-β-D-galactoside-7-O-β-D-glucoside, aristolactam A & B, β-Sitosterol, N-phenethyl-benzamide [150]	Antiviral, antitumour, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, anti-SARS, immunomodulator, etc. [150]
57	Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam. (HAMP20025)	Convovulaceae	Kawl-ba-hra	H, Cr	YS	Raw	Digestion (37)	37	0.185	3-mono-O-caffeoylquinic acid; caffeic acid; vitamin C; kaempferol [151]	Antidiabetic, anticancer, antioxidant, antiulcer, cardiovascular effect [151]
58	Lablab purpureus (L.) Sweet (HAMP20043)	Fabaceae	Bepui	Sh	Lf	Paste	Vaccine pain relief (18)	18	0.09	Phytic acid, linoleic acid, linolenic acid, [152]	Antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, cytotoxicity, antimicrobial, antioxidant, hypolipidemic [152]
59	Laurocerasus undulata (Buch-Ham. ex D. Don) M. Roem. (HAMP20071)	Rosaceae	Thei-ar-lung	H	Lf	Decoction	Heart disease (14)	14	0.07	Not reported	Not reported
60	Lindernia ruellioides (Colsm.) Pennell (HAMP20078)	Schrophulariaceae	Thasuih	H	WP	Paste	Sciatica (24)	24	0.12	Linderruelliosides A & B; plantainoside A; acteoside, desrhamnosylverbascoside [154]	Anti-inflammatory, antitumour, antiulcer, analgesic [155]
61	Lobelia angulata G. Forst. (HAMP20020)	Campanulacea	Choak-a-thi	H	WP	Decoction	Tonsil (9), gallstone (16)	25	0.125	Not reported	Not reported
62	Maesa indica (Roxb.) A. DC. (HAMP20060)	Myrsinaceae	Arngeng	Sh	Lf	Paste	Toothache (4)	4	0.02	2 5 dihydroxy-6-methyl 3 (hemeos 16-enyl)-1 4benzoquinone [156]	Hypoglycemic, [157]
63	Magnolia champaca (L.) Baill. ex Pierre (HAMP20050)	Magnoliaceae	Ngiau	T	Lf	Miceration	Itchy eyes (18)	18	0.09	Butanoic acid, 2-methyl-3-oxo-, ethyl ester; Camphorsulfonic acid [158]	Anti-inflammatory, antipyretic, antimicrobial, anticancer [158, 159]
64	Mangifera indica L. (HAMP20002)	Anacardiaceae	Theihai	T	YS	Decoction	Diarrhea (5), diabetes (10), hypertension (10), asthma (6)	31	0.155	Quercetin-3-O-β-L-rhamnopyranoside; maclurin-3-C-β-glucoside; amentoflavone; mangiferin [160]	Antidiabetic, antiviral, antiulcer, antimalarial, hepatoprotective, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial [161]
65	Mentha arvensis L. (HAMP20048)	Lamiaceae	Pudina	H	Lf	Decoction	Stomach problem (38)	38	0.19	Menthol, p-menthone, neo-menthone, iso-menthone [162]	Antioxidant, analgesic, antibacterial, cytotoxic, antifertility, anti-inflammatory, antiallergic [163]
66	Mesua ferrea L. (HAMP20022)	Clusiaceae	Herhse	T	Lf	Paste, decoction	Wound (8), stomachache (7), diarrhea (3)	18	0.09	1,5-dihydroxyxanthone; euxanthone, 7-methyl ether; β-sitosterol [164]	Antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, antiulcer, anti-arthritis, analgesic, analgesic, hepatoprotective, antioxidant [165]
67	Mikania micrantha Kunth (HAMP20014)	Asteraceae	Japan Hlo	H, Cr	Lf	Paste, decoction	Wound (52), diarrhea (8), dysentery (6), stomach ache (16)	82	0.41	β-cubebene; 1H-inden-1-one, 5-(1, 1-dimethylethyl)-2, 3-; allo-aromadendrene; β-caryophyllene [166]	Antimicrobial, antioxidant, anthelminthic [167, 168]
68	Mimosa pudica L. (HAMP20054)	Mimosaceae	Hlonuar	H	Lf	Decoction	Kidney disease (37)	37	0.185	7, 8, 3', 4'-tetrahydroxyl-6-C [alpha- L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1 --> 2)]-beta- D-glucopyranosyl flavone; catcher; 5, 7,3', 4'-tetrahydroxyl-6-C [alpha-L- rhamnopyranosyl-(1 --> 2)]-beta- D-glucopyranosyl flavone [169]	Wound healing, antimicrobial, analgesic, antimalaria, anti-inflammatory, hepatotoxicity, antidiarrheal, anthelminthes [170]
69	Morus macroura Miq. (HAMP20056)	Moraceae	Lung-li	T	Lf	Raw	Cut / wound (22)	2	0.01	Gallic acid, catechin, p-hydroxy benzoic, ellagic acid,3,4,5- methoxy cinnamic [171]	Anti-inflammatory, antioxidative, antiulcer [171]
70	Musa acuminata Colla (HAMP20059)	Musaceae	Balhla	H	Fr, sap	Paste, Decoction	Diabetic wound (6), lung disease (2), snake bite (4)	12	0.06	Pantothenic acid (B5), ferulic acid-hexoside, Vitamin C, provitamin A, lycopene [172]	Antioxidant, antidiarrhea, immunomodulatory, anti-HIV, antidiabetic, hypolipidemic, anticancer, antimicrobial [173, 174]
71	Mussaenda macrophylla Wall. (HAMP20072)	Rubiaceae	Va-kep	Sh	Lf	Decoction	Internal bleeding (17)	17	0.085	3-O-β-d-glucopyranosyl-28-O-α-l-rhamnopyranosyl-16α-hydroxy-23-deoxyprotobassic acid; 16α-hydroxyprotobassic acid; 3-O-acetyldaturadiol; rotundic acid [175]	Antimicrobial [176]
72	Ocimum americanum L. (HAMP20049)	Lamiaceae	Runhmui	H	Lf, St	Paste	Pile problem (2)	2	0.01	á-pinene; farnesene; terpineol; farnesol; limonen [177]	Antioxidant, antimicrobial, [178, 179]
73	Oroxylum indicum (L.) Kurz (HAMP20018)	Bignoniaceae	Ar-chang- kawm	T	Br, Lf	Paste, decoction	Ulcer (6), arthritis (13), diarrhea (3), dysentry (6), hepatitis C (9)	37	0.185	Ellagic acid; oroxylin-A; 7-o-methyl chrysin; palmitoleic; linoleic acids [180]	Anticancer, antimicrobial, hepatoprotective, antiulcer, amtiarthritic, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, immunostimulatant, cardioprotective [180, 181]
74	Pandanus odorifer (Forssk.) Kuntze (HAMP20064)	Pandanaceae	Ram-la-kuih	Sh	Lf	Decoction	Kidney disease 24	24	0.12	Not reported	Anticancer, antimicrobial [182]
75	Parkia timoriana (DC.) Merr. (HAMP20055)	Mimosaceae	Zawngtah	T	Fr, peel, Br	Paste, raw	Diabetes (10), baby umblical care (2), hypertension (4)	16	0.08	β-sitostero; javanicoside A; epigallocatechin gallate; ursolic acid; hyperin [183]	Antioxidant, antidiabetic, antiproliferative, antibacterial, anti-insecticidal [183]
76	Phylanthus emblica L. (HAMP20065)	Phyllanthaceae	Sunhlu	T	Fr	Raw, juice	Diarrhea (2), skincare (12), stomach problem (8), energybooster (7), diabetes (9), hypertension (6), jaundice (4)	48	0.24	Ascorbic acids, gallic acids, quercetin, punigluconin, emblicanin A&B, citric acids [184]	Antimicrobial, analgesic, antioxidant, antipyretic, hepatoprotective, antiulcer, antitumour, anti-inflammatory, immunostimulant [184]
77	Picria fel-terrae Lour. (HAMP20079)	Scrophulariaceae	Khatual	H	Lf	Decoction	Hypertension (24)	24	0.12	Rosmarinic acid; apigenin-7-O-β-D-glucuronide; picfeltarraegenin IV; acteoside; apigenin [185]	Antioxidant, anthelmintic, antiproliferative [186, 187]
78	Plantago major L. (HAMP20066)	Plantaginaceae	Kelba-an	H	Lf	Decoction	Kidney disease (2), urinary problem (34)	36	0.18	Plantaginin; plantagonin; ursolic acid; aucubin; palmitic acid, ascorbic acid [188]	Immunomodulator, antioxidant, analgesic, antiulcer, antibiotic, antiviral, cytotoxicity, hepatoprotective [188]
79	Psidium guajava L. (HAMP20061)	Myrtaceae	Kawl-thei	T	Lf	Decoction	Diarrhea (97), hair fall (1)	98	0.49	β-sitosterol; guajanoic acid; oleanolic acid; uvaol; ursolic acid [189]	Anti-allergy, antioxidant, antimicrobial, anticough, antinogenetic, analgesic, cytotoxicity, antidiabetic, anti-inflammator [190]
80	Pseudodrynaria coronans (Wall. ex Mett.) Ching (HAMP20067)	Polypodiaceae	Awmvel	H	Lf	Paste	Herpes (12)	12	0.06	Kaempferol-3-O-(6'' -O-acetyl)-β-D-glucopyranoside; astragalin; isoquercitrin; kaempferol3-O-(6'' -O-feruloyl-4'' -O-acetyl)-β-D-glucopyranoside [191]	Antioxidant [191]
81	Punica granatum L. (HAMP20068)	Punicaceae	Thei-buh-fai	T	Fr	Raw, juice	Anemia (5), immuno- booster (21), cancer (5)	31	0.155	Ellagic acid; kaempferol; anthocyanins; punicalagin; quercetin; luteolin; ellagitannins [192]	Antiepileptic, antimicrobial, antiviral antidiabetic, antioxidant, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, hepatoprotective [192]
82	Rhus chinensis Mill. (HAMP20003)	Anacardiaceae	Khawmhma	T	Fr	Raw, powder	Diarrhea (27), stomach ache (18)	45	0.225	Moronic acid; gallicin; 3-oxo-6β-hydroxyolean-12-en-28-oic; aciddimethyl caffic acid; phytol [193]	Antidiarrheal, anticancer, anti-HIV, antidiabetic, hepatoprotective [193]
83	Sarcococca pruniformis Lindl. (HAMP20040)	Euphorbiacea	Pawhrual	H	Lf	Raw, decoction	Tonsil (49)	49	0.245	Not reported	Not reported
84	Schima wallichii Choisy (HAMP20083)	Theaceae	Khiang	T	Br/ St	Paste	Insect bite (9), wound (5)	14	0.07	Phenylpropanolamine; rotenone; glycidol; 2, 3-benzofurandione [194]	Anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antimicrobial, analgesic, anti-pyretic [195, 196]
85	Senecio scandens Buch- Ham. ex D. Don (HAMP20015)	Asteraceae	Sai-ek-hlo	H, Cr	Lf	Decoction, paste	Ulcer (17), diabetes (13), Hypertension (8), toothache (3), wound (2)	43	0.215	Quercetin; kaempferol; luteolin; rutin; phytol, palmitic acid; β-Amyrin; β-Sitosterol [197]	Anti-inflammatory, analgesic, mutagenic, antimicrobial, antiviral, anti-tumour, anti-leptospirosis, antioxidant [197]
86	Smilax globra Roxb. (HAMP20081)	Smilacaceae	Kai-tluang	H, Cr	Lf	Paste	Arthritis (20)	20	0.1	Palmitic acid; β-sitosterol; quercetin; apigenin; 3-methoxygallic acid; lignoceric acid [198]	Antimicrobial, antioxidant, cytotoxicity, anti-inflammatory, hepatoprotective, antiviral [198]
87	Smilax perfoliata Lour. (HAMP20080)	Smilacaceae	Kai-ha	Sh, Cr	Lf	Decoction	Dysentry (6)	(6)	0.03	Rutin,1; 6-O-diferuloyl-(3-O-p-coumaroyl)-b-D-fructofuranosyl-(2→1)-2-O-acetyl-a-D-glucopyranoside; cassiamin A & B; narcissin [199]	Antioxidant, antimicrobial [200]
88	Solanum americanum Mill. (HAMP20085)	Solanaceae	Anhling	Sh	Lf	Decoction	Nephrolithiasis (15), urinary retention (6), Kidney disease (11)	32	0.16	Pinoresinol; tetracosanoic acid; syringaresinol; β-sitosterol; scopoletin; medioresinol [201]	Antimicrobial, hepatoprotectivity, anti-inflammatory, anti-seizure, antioxidant, antipyretic, antitumour [202, 203]
89	Solanum violaceum Ortega (HAMP20086)	Solanaceae	Tawkte	Sh	Fr	Decoction, paste	Hypertension (20), diabetes (6), burn (4), boil (1), herpes (2)	33	0.165	7-oxositosterol; yamogenin; 7-oxostigmasteroldiosgenin [204]	Antioxidant, antiobesity. anthelminthic, cytotoxity, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antinociceptive, antipyretic [205–207]
90	Spondias pinnata (L. f.) Kurz (HAMP20004	Anacardiaceae	Tawi-taw	T	Br	Decoction	Diarrhea (3)	3	0.015	Ellagitannins, galloylgeranin, lignoseric acid, β -carotein, oleanic acid [208]	Antimicrobial, cytoxicity, anti-cancer, antioxidant, anthelmintic, thrombolytic activity, antidiarrheal [208]
91	Tectona grandis L.f. (HAMP20089)	Verbenaceae	Teak	T	Br, Lf	Paste	Wound bleeding (2)	2	0.01	Gallic acid; β-sitosterol; betulinic acid; tectoquinone; squalene; lauric acid [209]	Antibacterial, anti-diabetic, antioxidant, antiulcer, antipyretic, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antiviral, cytotoxic activity [209, 210]
92	Zea mays L. (HAMP20070)	Poaceae	Vaimim	H	Lf	Decoction	Kidney disease (15)	15	0.075	Eugenol; cis-α-terpineol; citronellol; 6,11-oxidoacor-4-ene [211]	Antimcrobial, antioxidant, antimutagen [212, 213]
93	Zingiber officinale Roscoe (HAMP20093)	Zingiberaceae	Sawhthing	H	Rh	Raw, decoction	Cold / cough (12), digestion (18)	30	0.15	Zingiberene; gingerols; farnesene; curcumene; zingerone; vitamins [214]	Appetizer, antimicrobial, immunostimulant, analgesic, anticancer antioxidant, antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory, antiarthritis, etc. [214, 215]
Habit: H-Herbs; Sh-Shurbs; Cr-Creeper; T-Tree UR-Used reports FC-Frequency of citation UV-Use value
^bPart used: Lf-Leaf; Br-Bark; Fr-Fruit, Rh-Rhizome; St-Stem; S-Seed; WP-Whole Plants; YS-Young Shoot

Usage analysis based on the treatment of ailments

The total number of user reports documented in this study was 2717, in which all different illnesses were categorised into 16 groups. Among the illness category, the gastro-intestinal disease has the highest usage report (940) followed by skincare (259) cardiovascular (222), kidney disease (196), hyperglycaemia (175), ENT (159), genito-urinary disease (139) and so on as shown in (Table 4).

Table 4

Usage analysis with illness category and their term.
Illness Categories	Medical Term	Local Term	Frequency of usage
Dental Care (DC)	Tooth decay Toothpaste	Ha muat / Ha nget Ha nawhna	57
Skin Care (SC)	Pimple, burn, Face pack, boil, chickenpox, Measles, Herpes,	Bawl, Kang, Sentut, Khawihli, Awmvel, Tangseh Hmai chiahna,	259
Hair Care (HC)	Growth enhances, shining, hair fall	Sam thatna, Sam tletna, Sam tla	16
Eyes/Nose/ Ears/Mouth (ENT)	Otorrhoea, eye itching, Sinusitis, Tonsilitis	Beng kherh, Mit thak, Sinus, Tonsil	159
Genito-urinary Disease (GUD)	Delivery pain, placenta discharge, urine retention,	Nau neih zawh hlam tlakna / na, Zun in	139
Kidney Disease (KD)	Nephrolithiasis, kidney failure	Kal a lungte awm, Kalna, Kal a hnai awm	196
High glucose level (HGL)	Diabetes type I & II	Zunthlum	175
Cancer Disease (CD)	Breast cancer, Leukemia, lung cancer, etc	Hnute Cancer, Thisen cancer, Chuap cancer leh dangte	75
Liver Problem (LP)	Jaundice, Hepatitis B & C, cholelithiasis, Malaria	Thinlian, Hepatitis, Malaria, Mit a lungte awm	100
Cardiovascular Problem (CP)	Hypertension, Heart problem	Bp sang leh hniam, lung thalo	222
Muscular / Bone Problem (MBP)	Rheumatoid, Arthritis, Sciatica	Ruh seh/Sehpui, thana, Scaitica	81
Respiratory System illness (RSI)	Cold, Cough, Asthma, lung disease	Hritlang, Awmna, Khuh, Thawhah	42
Gastro-intestinal Disease (GID)	Ulcer, stomach pain, Dysentry, Diarrhea, Digestion, Hemorrhoid, Constipation, Intestinal worms, internal bleeding	Ulcer, Pumna, Ek khal, Pile na, Puar nuamlo, Khawthalo, Santen, Rul hlut, Internal bleeding	940
Wound healing (WH)	Inflammation	Pem thar /Pilh damdawi, Pan, vung	126
Poisonous Bites (PB)	Snake bite, Scorpion bite, dog bite, Wasp sting	Rul chuk, Ui seh, Khuai zuk, Khawmual kaikuang seh	45
General Health (GH)	Fever, Headache, cold, Immuno-booster, Energy booster, etc	Luna, Khawsik, Taksa chakna, Hriselna	81
		Total	2717

Data analysis

Frequency of citation

Among the total number of user reports (UR) cited, Curcuma longa L. (136 FC), Flueggea virosa (Roxb. ex Willd.) Royle (126 FC), Psidium guajava L. (98 FC), Chromoleana odorata (L.) R.M. King & H. Rob. (87 FC), Mikania micrantha Kunth (82 FC), Citrus limon (L.) Osbeck (68 FC), Carica papaya L. (53 FC), Ananas comosus (L.) Merr. (49 FC), Sarcococca pruniformis Lindl. (49 FC), Phylanthus emblica L. (48 FC), Rhus chinensis Mill. (45 FC), Clerodendrum glandulosum Lindl. (44 FC), Senecio scandens Buch- Ham. ex D. Don (43 FC) were those species having the highest FC (Table 3).

Plant use value

From the UV value evaluation, Curcuma longa L. (0.68), Flueggea virosa (Roxb. ex Willd.) Royle (0.63), Psidium guajava L. (0.49), Chromoleana odorata (L.) R.M. King & H. Rob. (0.43), Mikania micrantha Kunth (0.41), Citrus limon (L.) Osbeck (0.34), Carica papaya L. (0.26), Ananas comosus (L.) Merr. (0.24), Sarcococca pruniformis Lindl. (0.24), Phylanthus emblica L. (0.24), Cleradendrum glandulosum Lindl. (0.22), Rhus chinensis Mill. (0.22), Senecio scandens Buch- Ham. ex D. Don (0.21) were reported to have the highest use value (UV).

Informant Consensus Factor

We calculated the informant consensus factor by categorising the reported illness into 16 ailment groups along with the number of users report and taxa as shown in (Table 5). In our study F_ic values ranged from 0.866 to 0.962 which were all close to 1. F_ic value with 1 or either close to 1 indicates that a large number of informants had agreed on using few plants for curing an illness category while low F_ic value signified that there was an argument on using medicinal plants to treat illness amidst the category.

Table 5

Informant consensus factor with their used report in each of an ailment category.
Illness Categories	No of used report	No of taxa	F_ic
Dental Care (DC)	57	8	0.875
Skin Care (SC)	259	13	0.953
Hair Care (HC)	16	3	0.866
Eyes/Nose/ Ears/Mouth (ENT)	159	9	0.949
Genito-urinary Disease (GUD)	139	9	0.942
Kidney Disease (KD)	196	15	0.928
Endocrinal Disorder (ED)	175	12	0.936
Cancer Disease (CD)	75	5	0.945
Liver Problem (LP)	100	7	0.939
Cardiovascular Problem (CP)	222	14	0.941
Muscle/Bone Problem (MBP)	81	4	0.962
Respiratory System illness (RSI)	42	5	0.902
Gastro-intestinal Disease (GID)	940	42	0.956
Wound healing (WH)	126	10	0.928
Poisonous Bites (PB)	45	5	0.909
General Health (GH)	81	10	0.887
	2717

Correlation and Validation studies

An attempt was made to compare the use of all the medicinal plants reported by the informants with the previous papers published for their biological activity or ethnomedicines (Table 3). According to the studies conducted by Cakilcioglu et al., 2011, it was stated that if a medicinal plant has been reported for similar use in other parts of the world, its pharmacological effect could be more easily known [216].

The use of crude juice of Allium cepa L. showed a significantly higher hair growth rate than tap water when applied twice a day for two months which corroborated the present report of hair regrowth [22]. Metallothionein, an antioxidant protein present in Aloe vera (L.) gel has been reported to have a protective effect against UV and gamma radiation damage to the skin. It scavenges free radicals by preventing the suppression of glutathione peroxidase and superoxide dismutase in the skin [30]. So, this validated the used of A. vera for skin care and burning by the Mizo tribes. In the present study, Betula alnoides Buch- Ham. ex D. Don has been used as toothpaste for whitening teeth while it was proved that 80% methanolic bark extract had the potential α-glucosidase inhibitory effect that prevent the (98.4%) at 40 µg/mL concentration [2]. Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp is used effectively in Champhai district to treat jaundice and intestinal worms. To certify this, the methanolic extracts showed hepatoprotective activity in Swiss albino mice by inducing carbon tetrachloride (CCl₄) that cause liver damage. It lowers the serum levels of glutamate pyruvate transaminase (SGPT), or alanine aminotransferase (ALT) aspartate aminotransferase (AST) or serum glutamate oxaloacetate transaminase (SGOT) significantly [61].

When the aqueous extracts of Carica papaya L. and Ananas comosus L. were given to Spraque Dawley rats orally at doses of 5 and 10 mg/kg. Both possessed mild to strong diuretic activity. Careful measure should be taken when using these plants as increase in the level of urinary K⁺, serum BUN and creatinine were mentioned [75]. This validated the used of C. papaya and A. comosus in kidney disease and urinary infection. The contemporary reports showed that Drymaria cordata (L.) was used as an instant pain killer for rheumatism meanwhile the scientific study also demonstrated that the aqueous whole plant extract exhibited analgesic and antipyretic properties at doses of 100, 200, and 400 mg/kg p.o mediated through peripheral and central mechanisms [217]. The latex water-soluble fraction of Euphorbia royleana Boiss. showed dose-dependent anti-arthritic and anti-inflammatory effects in rats and mice administered through gavage at doses of 50–200 mg/kg having more than 1500 mg/kg oral LD₅₀ in both [141]. Dose-dependent and significant decline in the number of abdominal constrictions induced by intraperitoneal administration of acetic acid were observed in methanol extract of Lablab purpureus (L.) Sweet. at a dose of 200 mg and 400 mg exhibit far better analgesic activity than 200 mg aspirin per kg of body weight [218].

Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott and Elaeagnus caudata Schltdl. ex Momiy. were declared to use to discharge placenta after birth and to treat vaginal discharge (Lochia) for women in present study. Besides this record, in Cachar hills district of Assam, India 5ml of Elaeagnus caudata fresh root extract diluted in 10ml of fresh water was also administered orally once a week to prevent miscarriage during pregnancy although there is no scientific study to backup this claim [124]. Apart from present report in Jamaica, Mikania micrantha Kunth. was most popularly used too for wound healing and its extract showed anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial activity against common pathogens, namely Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus sp [219]. The decoction of Psidium guajava leaf was effectively being used for diarrhoea which already proved to have antidiarrheal and protein conservative effects in diarrheal rats at a dose of 50 and 100mg/kg of body weight. It increased the kidney weight and concentration of sodium, potassium and chloride significantly [220]. In the animal study of anti-urolithialic activity of Solanum nigrum, the fruit hydroalcoholic extract elicited potent activity against calcium oxalate urolithiasis effected by ethylene glycol through tumour necrosis factor adiponectin stimulation and alpha inhibition, also maintained the balance between stone promoter as well as inhibitor such as calcium and magnesium respectively [221]. Thus, this authenticated the used of S. nigrum for removing/forming kidney stone by the Mizo tribes in India.

Anoectochilus brevilabris Lindl., Begonia inflata C.B. Clark, Dysoxylum excelsum Blume, Embelia vestita Roxb, Ensete glaucum (Roxb.) Cheesman, Gomphogyne cissiformis Griff., Helicia robusta (Roxb.) R. Br. ex Blume, Laurocerasus undulata (Buch- Ham. ex D. Don) M. Roem. and Lobelia angulata G. Forst., Sarcococca pruniformis Lindl. were the plants that did not have biological activity reported previously which means that there is no scientific validation to support their application. Therefore, these plants were especially recommended in carrying out further investigation.

In addition, we compiled the secondary metabolite isolated chemical constituents done by the several researchers for all the documented plants in the present study. Further investigation revealed that secondary metabolites from 13 plant species that have neither less nor none chemical compound isolated or identified - Anoectochilus brevilabris Lindl., Begonia inflata C. B. Clark., Castanopsis tribuloides (Sm.) A. DC., Combretum wallichii DC, Elaeagnus caudata Schltdl. ex Momiy., Embelia vestita Roxb., Ensete glaucum (Roxb.) Cheesman, Gomphogyne cissiformis Griff., Helicia robusta (Roxb.) R. Br. ex Blume, Laurocerasus undulata (Buch- Ham. ex D. Don) M. Roem., Lobelia angulata G. Forst., Pandanus odorifer (Forssk.) Kuntze, Sarcococca pruniformis Lindl. (Table 3) which will surely have great potent on ethnopharmacological study.

According to the finding of other workers regarding this demography of informants, the males played more role than females in ethnomedicinal practices [222, 223] which correspond to our results that women practitioners (44%) were less than men (56%) as being a traditional healer in the study area as shown in (Table 1). Further, the results of the usage of plants dominated by the families were followed and confirmed the work done by some researchers stating that greater the plants grew in the study area the more it will be favourably and commonly used [224]. In the present study we laid out the only accepted botanical names by ‘The Plant List’ and their family, local name, habit, mode of preparation and ailments as illustrated in Table 3.

The frequent use of herbaceous plants as medicines among the informants was due to their richness, abundance as well as their ability to grow easily in nature. Meanwhile, many parts of the world have been commonly using herbs as their medicinal ingredients due to their wide range of medicinal properties [225]. Leaves are the most utilised part of the plants due to their ease off collection as compared to their underground part. It is also the active site of photosynthesis accompanied by the production of metabolites [1, 226]. In addition, leaves can be easily prepared and stored. It can be dried quickly under the sun in lesser amount of time than other parts like stem, bark and rhizome.

Similarly, it is also reported that decoction was the most common preparation method for herbal medicine while in some other tribal community [3], preparation of paste was the most common method applied [1, 223, 227]. For decoction the plant part was washed thoroughly and boiled with water administering the juice orally whereas for paste the materials were crushed or rubbed within palms and applied topically. To make fine powder plant parts were shade dried and ground. Intake of oral administration and external topical formulation were the main mode of administration used in traditional herbal medicines which has also been previously reported [222, 228]. Regarding the duration of consumption of herbal medicine, it depends on the illness whether it was short term or long term. For instance, short term illness like cold, flu, stomach upset and skin problem, the consumption period did not last more than 1 week. On the contrary, the long term illness like diabetes, kidney failure and heart diseases, the consumption period of plants (eg: Flueggea virosa) was much longer and last more than a month and so on.

From this study it was clear that among the informants, stomach problems like ulcer, indigestion, diabetes, hypertension and kidney problems were common illness resulting in high user rate of consuming herbal medicines and similar record was reported by Mahwasane et al., [229]. Further, skin problem like dermatitis which was the second highest usage report was the highest ailment in most other tribal communities like Malda district in West Bengal reported by Saha et al. [230].

Generally, majority of the informants did not consume the medicines prescribed by the Doctor’s prescribed medicines along with their herbal medicine and claimed that many plants like Sarcococca pruniformis (tonsil), Psidium guajava (diarrhoea), Mikania micrantha (cut/wound), Flueggea virosa (chicken pox), Elaeagnus caudata (veginal discharge) were really effective and most importantly, none of them reported any adverse effect of the herbal medicines. Moreover, regarding the expenditure on buying medicines, 38% of the informants usually purchased their herbal medicines either in raw form (Allium sativum, Allium cepa, Beta vulgaris) or in processed form like juice (Citrus limon, Phyllanthus emblica, Citrus aurantiifolia), fruits (Punica granatum, Phylanthus eamblica, Cucumis sativus), and powder (Curcuma longa). Concerned about the source of their knowledge, all the informants reported that they have heard and learned some of their information from their elders, family and/or acquaintances. Besides these, 30% of the informants have also gathered additional information through social media and 10% through books, magazines and newspapers. This documentation clearly showed that knowledge and cultural practices of herbal medicines had been shared through the indigenous community through word of mouth.

Frequency of citation showed the sociocultural importance of medicinal plants to identify their therapeutic value [17]. The FC value is directly proportional to the use value (UV), the more FC value will increase the used value significantly.

Curcuma longa L. is one of the main commercially grown as seasoning plants in India. In Southeast Asia including India and China, turmeric powder has been used extensively for spice and colouring food material. It had a wide range of medicinal value that curcumin was the main bioactive chemical constituents [231]. C. longa was a mandatory spice that each and every household kept it which/that is why the reason used report (UR) for medicinal value is high among the informants. The informants in present study reported that Flueggea virosa have a prominent effectiveness against diabetes (59 UR) and chickenpox (50 UR). The Mizo tribes extensively used F. virosa and Embelia vestita Roxb. plant to treat chickenpox and measles by bathing once a day with the decoction of leaf mixed with water.

Higher in the UV value indicates the more rate of agreeing and sharing their knowledges and practices of the medicinal plants among the informants [223]. Among the Terai forest of western Nepal Curcuma longa L. was also reported as the highest used value [232] similar to this result.

The plants with low UV value were Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott, Eulophia nuda Lindl and Ocimum americanum L., Maesa indica (Roxb.) A. DC, Morus macroura Miq, Tectona grandis L.f., Hibiscus sinensis Mill, Eleais guineensis Jacq, Smilax perfoliata Lour with less than 0.05 UV as shown in (Table 3). Tectona grandis L.f. was also described with very low UV value by Ayyanar and Ignacimuthu as relevant to this result [1]. According to Chaudhary et al. 2006, the plants with low used value were in at risk of misrecollecting and passing on to the young generation which might be gradually disappearing [233]. On the other hand, the relevance of knowing the plant used value was for the convenience of pharmacological study and their used reliability [234].

However, Rajakumar and Shivanna had mentioned that the value of F_ic depends on the accessibility of the taxa for the treatment of various disease in the study area. Muscle/Bone problem with 81 UR have the highest F_ic value of 0.962 followed by gastro-intestinal disease (GID) with 940 UR and skin care (SC) with 259 UR (Table 5). The lowest F_ic value in the present study was the General Health (GH) category (Cold, fever, immunity boost) with 0.887 which was still more than the previous maximum F_ic value report in Shimoga district, Karnataka, India i.e 0.77 in Liver complaints [235]. On the conflict of these report, our study indicated that there was high consistency of the indigenous informant knowledge in the practices of ethnomedicines and utilised the same plants to treat it.

The present study concluded that the native people in the study area have their unique way of utilizing medicinal plants to treat different kinds of ailments. We documented 93 valuable medicinal plants belonging to 55 families in which Euphorbiaceae and Asteraceae family were the most widely used in the area. Among the plants part, leaves were the most commonly used. No new medicinal taxa were reported but this study is a first quantitative report of ethnomedicine in this region and no informant had reported an adverse effect of herbal medicines. Their traditional pieces of knowledge had been passed on from their elders mostly through word of mouth. This study also revealed that younger generations between the age of 18-30 have little to no knowledge of preparation of herbal medicines and their use as compared to the older age groups. This is mostly due to the availability of modern clinical drugs in the villages. Therefore, the traditional knowledge and practices of medicinal plants in the study area are somehow at risk of dying. This is why it is important to document the valuable knowledge as well as for conservation of the taxa.

The plants which have high usage report and frequency of citation were known to possess numerous phytochemical compounds. The calculated informant consensus factor was extremely high, which means that the acquired data can be used as reference and reliable for ethnopharmacological study in the future. Even though the remedial value of many high cited plants has already been verified, there are still some plants that need to be validated. Hence, they are strongly recommended for further studies to develop alternative drugs.

H-Herbs; Sh-Shurbs; Cr-Creeper; T-Tree; UR-Used reports; FC-Frequency of citation; UV-Use value; Lf-Leaf; Br-Bark; Fr-Fruit, Rh-Rhizome; St-Stem; S-Seed; WP-Whole Plants; YS-Young Shoot

Ethics approval and consent to participate

Not applicable.

Consent for publication

Not applicable.

Availability of data and materials

All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this published article.

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no competing interests

Funding

This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

Authors Contribution

Carry out ethnobotanical survey, write the manuscript and analyse the data: TBCL and AK; Study proposer, design the questionnaire and revise the manuscript: TBCL, NMT, RZ, LB and AK; Design the graphical abstract: NMT and AP; Proof reader: RZ and AP.

Acknowledgements

The authors were thankful to the department of Horticulture, Aromatic and Medicinal Plant, Mizoram University for providing the necessary facilities to complete our work. We also offer our heartfelt gratitude to all the local people of Champhai District, Mizoram who shared their valuable knowledge and precious time for this research.

Authors' information

¹Department of Horticulture, Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, School of Earth Science and Natural Resourcess, Mizoram University, 796004, India; ²Department of Botany, School of Life Science, Mizoram University, 796004, India; ³Bioprospection and Product Development, CSIR-Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, CIMAP, Lucknow-226015, India

Ayyanara M, Ignacimuthub S. Ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants commonly used by Kani tribals in Tirunelveli hills of Western Ghats, India. J Ethnopharmacol. 2011;134:851-64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2011.01.029.
Ghimire BK, Tamang JP, Yu CY, Jung SJ, Chung IM. Antioxidant, antimicrobial activity and inhibition of α-glucosidase activity by Betula alnoides Buch. bark extract and their relationship with polyphenolic compounds concentration. Immunopharmacol Immunotoxicol. 2012;34:824-31. https://doi.org/10.3109/08923973.2012.661739
Simbo DJ. An ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants in Babungo, Northwest Region, Cameroon. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2010;6:8. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-6-8
Fabricant DS, Farnsworth NR. The value of plants used in traditional medicine for drug discovery. Environ Health Perspect. 2001;109:69-75. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.01109s169
Kadhirvel K, Ramya S, Sudha TS, Ravi AV, Rajasekaran C, Selvi RV, Jayakumararaj R. Ethnomedicinal survey on plants used by tribals in Chitteri Hills. Environ We Int J Sci Tech. 2010;5:35-46.
Rai PK, Lalramnghinglova H. Ethnomedicinal plant resources of Mizoram, India: Implication of traditional knowledge in health care system. Ethnobot Leafl. 2010;3:6.
Tikkanen R, Osborn R, Mossialos E, Djordjevic A, Wharton GA. International Health Care System Profiles, India. The Commonwealth Fund. 2020 https://www.commonwealthfund.org/international-health-policy-enter/countries/india Accessed 21.06.2021.
Lalramnghinglova H, Jha LK. Ethnomedicine from Mizoram – North East India. Ethnobotany. 1997; 9:105-11.
Lalnundanga, Sahoo UK, Jha LK. Ethnobotanical flora in the humid sub-tropical semi-evergreen forest of Mizoram. Proceedings National Conference on Healthcare and Developments of Herbal Medicines, Raipur. 1997.
Sharma HK, Chhangte L, Dolui AK. Traditional medicinal plants in Mizoram, India. Fitoterapia. 2001;72(2):146-161. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0367-326X(00)00278-1
Lalramnghinglova H. Ethno-Medicinal Plants of Mizoram. Bishen Singh Mahendra, Pal Singh, Dehradun, India; 2003.
Singh NP, Singh KP, Singh DK. Flora of Mizoram. Botanical Survey of India. Ministry of Environment and Forest. Government of India, Kolkata; 2002
Sawmliana M. The Book of Mizoram Plants. Zakhuma P, Aizawl, Mizoram; 2003.
Champion GH, Seth SK. A revised survey of the forest types of India. Natraj Publishers, Dehradun; 1968.
Champhai district. Government of Mizoram, India. 2021. https://champhai.nic.in/about-district/. Accessed 03 Jan 2021.
Zou, TJC: Title of preprint. http://mzuir.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/288/1/T.%20John%20Chinliankap%20Zou%20(Geography)%20-%202013.pdf (2013). Accessed 04 Jan 2021.
Khajuria AK, Manhas RK, Kumar H, Bisht NS. Ethnobotanical Study of Traditionally used Medicinal Plants of Pauri District of Uttarakhand, India. J Ethnopharmacol. 2021; 276:114204. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2021.114204
Gazzaneo LRS, Lucena RFP, Albuquerque UP. Knowledge and use of medicinal plants by local specialists in a region of Atlantic Forest in the state of Pernambuco. J Ethnobiol Ethnomedicine. 2005;1:9. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-1-9
Heinrich M, Ankli A, Frei B, Weimann C, Sticher O. Medicinal plants in Mexico: healers’ consensus and cultural importance. Soc Sci Med. 1998;47:1859–71. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0277-9536(98)00181-6
Kundan SB, Anupam S. Phytoconstituents and Therapeutic Potential of Allium cepa Linn– A Review. Phcog Rev. 2009;3(5):170-80
Kumar KPS, Bhowmik D, Biswaji C, Tiwari P. Allium cepa: A traditional medicinal herb and its health benefits. J Chem Pharm Res. 2010;2(1):283-91.
Sharquie KE, Al‐Obaidi HK. Onion Juice (Allium cepa L.), A New Topical Treatment for Alopecia Areata. J Dermatol. 2002;29:343-6. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1346-8138.2002.tb00277.x
Teshika JD, Zakariyyah AM, Zaynab T, Zengin G, Rengasamy KR, Pandian SK, Fawzi MM. Traditional and modern uses of onion bulb (Allium cepa L.): A systematic review. Crit. Rev. Food Sci Nutr. 2019;59(1):39-70. https://doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2018.1499074
Batiha GES, Beshbishy AM, Elewa Y, Taha A. Chemical Constituents and Pharmacological Activities of Garlic (Allium sativum L.): A Review. Nutrients. 2020; 12:872. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/nu12030872
Miron T, Rabinkov A, Mirelman D, Wilchek M, Weiner L. The mode of action of allicin: Its ready permeability through phospholipid membranes may contribute to its biological activity. Biochim Biophys Acta. 2000;1463:20–30. DOI: 10.1016/S0005-2736(99)00174-1
Harris JC, Cottrell SL, Plummer S, Lloyd D. Antimicrobial properties of Allium sativum (garlic). Appl Microbial Biotechnol. 2001;57:282-6. https://doi.org/10.1007/s002530100722
Ishtiaq M, Hanif W, Khan MA, Ashraf M, Butt AM. An Ethnomedicinal Survey and Documentation of Important Medicinal Folklore Food Phytonims of Flora of Samahni Valley, (Azad Kashmir) Pakistan. Pakistan J Biol Sci. 2007:10:2241-56. https://doi.org/10.3923/pjbs.2007.2241.2256
Singh VK, Singh DK. Pharmacological Effects of Garlic (Allium sativum L.). Annu Rev Biomed Sci. 2008;10:6-26.
Arunkumar S, Muthuselvam M. Analysis of Phytochemical Constituents and Antimicrobial Activities of Aloe vera L. Against Clinical Pathogens. World J Agric Sci. 2009;5:572-6.
Christaki E, Florou-Paneri PC. Aloe vera: A plant for many uses. J Food Agric Environ. 2010;8:245-9.
Sahu PK, Giri DD, Singh R, Pandey P, Gupta S, Shrivastava AK, Kumar A, Pandey KD. Therapeutic and Medicinal Uses of Aloe vera: A Review. J Pharm Pharmacol. 2013;4:599-610. http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/pp.2013.48086
Surjushe A, Vasani R, Saple DG. Aloe vera: A short review. Indian Dermatol. 2008;53:163-6. https://dx.doi.org/10.4103%2F0019-5154.44785
Kalaria P, Gheewala P, Chakraborty M, Kamath J. A phytopharmacological review of Alstonia scholaris: A panoramic herbal medicine. Int J Res Ayurveda Pharm. 2012; 3:367-71.
Arulmozhi S, Mazumder PM, Ashok P, Narayanan LS. Pharmacological Activities of Alstonia scholaris Linn. (Apocynaceae) - A Review. Pharmacogn Rev. 2007;1:163-70.
Baliga MS. Review of the phytochemical, pharmacological and toxicological properties of Alstonia scholaris Linn. R. Br (Saptaparna). Chin J Integr Med. 2012;doi: 10.1007/s11655-011-0947-0
Huang XJ, Chen WH, Ji MH, Guo FY, Shu HM, Zheng CJ. Chemical constituents from leaves of Ananas comosus and their biological activities. Zhong Cao Yao. 2015; 46:949-54. doi: 10.7501/j.issn.0253-2670.2015.07.002.
Pavan R, Jain S, Kumar A. Properties and therapeutic application of bromelain: A review. Biotechnol Res Int. 2012;6:976203. https://doi.org/10.1155/2012/976203
Rathnavelu V, Alitheen NB, Sohila S, Kanagesan S, Ramesh R. Potential role of bromelain in clinical and therapeutic applications. Biomed Rep. 2016;3:283-8. https://doi.org/10.3892/br.2016.720
Lin TC, Tanaka T, Nonaka G, Nishioka I, Young TJ. Isolation and Characterization of novel Complex Tannins (Flavano-ellagitannins). Anogeissinin and Anogeissusin-B, from Anogeissus acuminata (Roxb ex Dc) Guill et Perr var Lanccolata Wall ex Clarke. Chem Pharm Bull. 1991;39:1144-7. https://doi.org/10.1248/cpb.39.1144
Hemamalini K, Ramu A, Mallu G, Srividya VV, Sravani V, Deepak P, Reddy UV. Evaluation of wound healing activity of different crude extracts of Anogeissus acuminata and Gymnosporia emerginata. Rasayan J Chem. 2011;4:466-71.
Monali PM, Padhy R. Antibacterial activity of green silver nanoparticles synthesized from Anogeissus acuminata against multidrug resistant urinary tract infecting bacteria in vitro and host-toxicity testing. J Appl Biomed. 2018;16:120-5. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jab.2017.11.003
Panda SK, Laxmipriya P, Pieter L, Maoxuan L, Johan N, Walter L. Antimicrobial, Anthelmintic, and Antiviral Activity of Plants Traditionally Used for Treating Infectious Disease in the Similipal Biosphere Reserve, Odisha, India Front Pharmacol. 2017;8:658. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2017.00658
Panda SS, Girgis AS, Prakash A, Khanna L, Khanna P, Shalaby EM, Fawzy NG, Jain SC. Protective effects of Aporosa octandra bark extract against D-galactose induced cognitive impairment and oxidative stress in mice. Heliyon. 2018; doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2018.e00951
Sahu BP, Gouda P, Patnaik C. Aporosa octandra, A Less Studied Plant Species with Potential Drug Activities-I: Identification of a New Compound from Aqueous Ethanolic Extract of its Stem Bark. Int J Adv Res Sci Eng Tech. 2016;3:2219-24.
Vabeiryureilai M, Lalrinzuali K, Rosangkima G, Jagetia GC. Qualitative Phytochemical Analysis and Antioxidant Activity of Aporosa octandra (Buch-Ham. ex D. Don) Extracts. Int J Pharmacol Res. 2014;6:68-73.
Siddiqui BS, Ali ST, Rasheed M, Kardar MN. Chemical Constituents of the Flowers of Azadirachta indica. Helv. Chim Acta. 2003;86:2787-96. https://doi.org/10.1002/hlca.200390229
Biswas K, Chattopadhyay I, Banerjee RK, Bandyopadhyay U. Biological activities and medicinal properties of neem (Azadirachta indica). Curr Sci. 2002;82:1336-45.
Doshi GM, Nalawade VV, Mukadam AS, Chaskar PK, Zine SP, Somani RR, Une HD. Structural elucidation of chemical constituents from Benincasa hispida seeds and Carissa congesta roots by gas chromatography: Mass spectroscopy. Pharmacogn Res. 2015;7(3):282–93. https://dx.doi.org/10.4103%2F0974-8490.157179
Al-Snafi AE. The Pharmacological Importance of Benincasa hispida. A review. Int J Pharm Sci Res. 2013;4:165-70.
Qadrie ZL, Hawisa NT, Khan MA, Samuel M, Anandan R. Antinociceptive and anti-pyretic activity of Benincasa hispida (Thunb.) cogn. in wistar albino rats. Pak J Pharm Sci. 2009;22:287-90.
El-Hawary SS, Hammouda FM, Tawfik WA, Kassem HA, Abdelshafeek KA, El-Shamy SS. Investigation of some chemical constituents, cytotoxicity and antioxidant activities of Beta vulgaris var. altissima cultivated in Egypt. Rasayan J Chem. 2017;10:1391-401. http://dx.doi.org/10.7324/RJC.2017.1041936
El-Beltagi HS, Mohamed HI, Megahed BHM, Gamal M, Safwat G. Evaluation of some chemical constituents, antioxidant, antibacterial and anticancer activities of Beta vulgaris L. root. Fresenius Environ Bull. 2018; 27:6369-78.
Maraie NK, A-Jalil TZ, Alhamdany AT, Janab HA. Phytochemical study of the Iraqi Beta vulgaris leaves and its clinical applications for the treatment of different dermatological diseases. World J Pharm Pharm Sci. 2014;3:5-19.
Ninfali P, Angelino D. Nutritional and functional potential of Beta vulgaris cicla and rubra. Fitoterapia. 2013;89:188-99. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fitote.2013.06.004
Dũng NX, Mõi LD, Leclercq PA. Constituents of the Bark Oil of Betula alnoides Ham ex. D. Don from Vietnam. J Essent Oil Res. 1995;7:565-6. DOI: 10.1080/10412905.1995.9698589
Thu NB, Trung TN, Ha DT, Khoi NM, Hung TV, Hien TT, Yim NH, Bae KH. Screening of Vietnamese Medicinal Plants for Cytotoxic Activity. Nat Prod Sci. 2010;16:43-9.
Yang DS, Yang YP, Yong-hong Y, Xiao-li L. Chemical Constituents of Bischofia javanica. Nat Prod Res Dev. 2013;25:1056-9. DOI: 10.3969/j.issn.1001-6880.2013.08.009.
Khan MR, Kihara M, Domoloso A. Anti-microbial activity of Bidens pilosa, Bischofia javanica, Elmerillia papuana and Sigesbekia orientalis. Fitoterapia. 2001; 72:662-5. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0367-326X(01)00261-1
Lingadurai S, Roy S, Joseph RV, Nath LK. Antileukemic activity of the leaf extract of Bischofia javanica blume on human leukemic cell lines. Indian J Pharmacol. 2011;43:143–9. https://dx.doi.org/10.4103%2F0253-7613.77348
Anadebe VC, Okafor NA, Ezeugo JO, Amanjide IJ, Ogide BC. GC-MS Analysis of Phytochemical Compounds in Cajanus cajan Leaf. J Chem Pharm Res. 2017;9:360-3.
Pal D, Mishra P, Sachan N, Ghosh AK. Biological activities and medicinal properties of Cajanus cajan (L) Millsp. J Adv Pharm Technol Res. 2011;2:207-14. https://dx.doi.org/10.4103%2F2231-4040.90874
Tu Y, Sun L, Guo M, Chen W. The medicinal uses of Callicarpa L. in traditional Chinese medicine: An ethnopharmacological, phytochemical and pharmacological review. J Ethnopharmacol. 2013;146:465-81. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2012.12.051
Zhu HB, Li BM, Liu C, Chen RY. Chemical constituents of Camellia sinensis var. assamica. Zhongguo Zhong yao za. 2013;38:1386-89. DOI: 10.4268/cjcmm20130925.
Sarangi AB. Medicinal and therapeutic potentialities of tea (Camellia sinensis L.) – A review. Food Res Int. 2009;42:529-35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2009.01.007
Hamilton-Miller JM. Antimicrobial properties of tea (Camellia sinensis L.) Antimicrobe. Agents Chemother. 1995;39:2375-7. https://dx.doi.org/10.1128%2Faac.39.11.2375
Grutenherman F, Russo E. Cannabis and Cannabinoids, Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutic Potential. The Howarth Integrative Healing Press, New York. 2002.
Nuutinen T. Medicinal properties of terpenes found in Cannabis sativa and Humulus lupulus. Eur J Med Chem. 2018;157:198-228. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejmech.2018.07.076
Siddiqui BS, Aslam H, Ali ST, Khan S, Begum S. Chemical constituents of Centella asiatica. J Asian Nat Prod Res. 2007;9:407-14. DOI: 10.1080/10286020600782454
Kalshetty P, Aswar U, Bodhankar S, Sinnathambi A, Mohan V, Thakurdesai P. Antidepressant effects of standardized extract of Centella asiatica L in olfactory bulbectomy model. Biomed Aging Pathol. 2012;2:48-53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biomag.2012.03.005
Nugrahaningsih DAA, Purnomo E. Protective Effect of Centella asiatica (L.) Urban on Heart and Kidney of Rat with Subtotal Nephrectomy. Der Pharma Lett. 2018;10:21-9
Punturee K, Wild CP, Kasinrerk W, Vinitketkumnuen U. Immunomodulatory Activities of Centella asiatica and Rhinacanthus nasutus Extracts. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev. 2005;6:396-400.
Marin A, Ferreres F, Tomás-Barberán FA, Gil MI. Characterization and Quantitation of Antioxidant Constituents of Sweet Pepper (Capsicum annuum L.). J Agric Food Chem. 2004;52:3861-9. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf0497915
Khan FA, Mahmood T, Ali M, Saeed A, Maalik A. Pharmacological importance of an ethnobotanical plant: Capsicum annuum L. Nat Prod Res. 2014;28:1267-74. https://doi.org/10.1080/14786419.2014.895723
Yogiraj V, Goyal PK, Chauhan CS, Goyal A, Vyas B. Carica papaya Linn: An Overview. Int J Herbal Med. 2014;2:1-8.
Adam Y, Nasaruddin AA, Zuraini A, Arifah AK, Zakaria MOFZ, Somchit MN. Diuretic Activity of Roots from Carica papaya L. and Ananas comosus L. Int J Pharm Sci Rev Res. 2013;23:163-7.
Krishna KL, Paridhavi M, Patel KL. Review on nutritional, medicinal and pharmacological properties of Papaya (Carica papaya Linn.). Nat Prod Radiance. 2008;7:364-73. http://nopr.niscair.res.in/handle/123456789/5695
Prakash D, Upadhyay G, Gupta C, Pushpangadan P, Singh KK. Antioxidant and free radical scavenging activities of some promising wild edible fruits. Int Food Res J. 2012;19:1109-16.
Ferreres F, Pereira DM, Valentão P, Andrade PB, Seabra RM, Sottomayor M. New Phenolic Compounds and Antioxidant Potential of Catharanthus roseus. J Agric Food Chem. 2008;56:9967-74.
Aslam J, Khan SH, Siddiqui ZH, Fatima Z, Maqsood M, Bhat MA, Nasim SA, Ilah A, Ahmad IZ, Khan SA, Mujib A. Catharanthus roseus (L.) G. Don. An important drug: it’s applications and production. Pharmacie Globale. 2010;4:1-16.
Gajalakshmi S, Vijayalakshmi SD, Rajeswari V. Pharmacological activities of Catharanthus roseus: A perspective review. Int J Pharm Bio Sci. 2013;4:431-9.
Hassan HM, Eldesoky AM, Al-Rashdi A, Ahmed HM. Green Corrosion Electrochemistry: Cheilocostus speciosus Extract (CSE) Investigated Electro-analytically as a Potential Green Corrosion Inhibitor for Copper within Acidic Solution. Int J Emerg Trends Eng Develop. 2016;7:72-98.
Ayam VS, Gogoi P. Evaluation of Antioxidant Activity of the Selected frequently used Traditional Wild Medicinal Plants from Lakhimpur, Assam (India). Pleione. 2018;12:187-92. Doi:10.26679/Pleione.12.2.2018.
Benelli G, Govindarajan M, Rajeswary M, Vaseeharan B, Alyahya SA, Alharbi NS, Kadaikunnan S, Khaled JM, Maggi F. Insecticidal activity of camphene, zerumbone and α-humulene from Cheilocostus speciosus rhizome essential oil against the Old-World bollworm, Helicoverpa armigera. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf. 2018;148:781-6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2017.11.044
Owolabi MS, Ogundajo A, Yusuf KO, Lajide L, Villanueva HE, Tuten JA, Setzer WN. Chemical Composition and Bioactivity of the Essential Oil of Chromolaena odorata from Nigeria. Rec Nat Prod. 2010;4:72-8.
Taiwo OB, Olajide OA, Soyannwo OO, Makinde JM. Anti-Inflammatory, Antipyretic and Antispasmodic Properties of Chromolaena Odorata. Pharm Biol. 2000;38:367-70. https://doi.org/10.1076/phbi.38.5.367.5970
Vaisakh MN, Pandey A. The invasive weed with healing properties: A review on Chromolaena odorata. Int J Pharm Sci Res. 2012;3:80-3.
Abyaneh M, Shams-Ghahfarokhi M, Rezaee MB, Jaimand K, Alinezhad S, Saberi R, Yoshinari T. Chemical composition and antiaflatoxigenic activity of Carum carvi L., Thymus vulgaris and Citrus aurantifolia essential oils. Food Control, 2009;20:1018-24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodcont.2008.12.007
Pathan RK, Gali PR, Pathan P, Gowtham T, Pasupuleti S. In vitro Antimicrobial Activity of Citrus aurantifolia and its phytochemical screening. Asian Pac J Trop Dis. 2012;2:328-31. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2222-1808(12)60176-5
Taur DJ, Kulkarni VB, Patil RY, Patil RN. Anthelmintic activity of Ocimum sanctum and Citrus aurantifolia oils. Pharmacologyonline. 2009;3:495-9.
Xu YR, Zhang KF, Xie QJ, Lin JX, Huan KX, Liao Y. Chemical Constituents from Young Fruits of Citrus maxima cv. Shatian. Zhong yao cai. 2015;38:1879-81.
Abirami A, Nagarani G, Siddhuraju P. Antimicrobial activity of crude extract of Citrus hystrix and Citrus maxima. Int J Pharm Sci. 2013;4:1-5.
Shivananda A, Rao DM, Jayaveera KN. Analgesic and anti-inflammatory activities of Citrus maxima (J. Burm) Merr in animal models. Res J Pharm Biol Chem Sci. 2013;4:1800-10. http://rjpbcs.com/pdf/2013_4(2)/
Sudeep DS, Karunakar H. Antiobesity activity of ethanolic extract of Citrus maxima leaves on cafeteria diet induced and drug induced obese rats. Res J Pharm Tech. 9, 907-912. http://dx.doi.org/10.5958/0974-360X.2016.00173.6
Kefford, J.F., 1960. The Chemical Constituents of Citrus Fruits. Adv Food Res. 2016;9:285-372. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2628(08)60278-5
Szczykutowicz MK, Szopa A, Ekiert H. Citrus limon (Lemon) Phenomenon—A Review of the Chemistry, Pharmacological Properties, Applications in the Modern Pharmaceutical, Food, and Cosmetics Industries, and Biotechnological Studies. Plants. 2020;9:119. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants9010119
Jadeja RN, Thounaojam MC, Singh TB, Devkar RV, Ramachandran AV. Traditional uses, phytochemistry and pharmacology of Clerodendron glandulosum Coleb – A review. Asian Pac J Trop Med. 2012;5:1-6. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1995-7645(11)60236-8
Prajapati R, Kalariya M, Umbarkar R, Parmar S, Sheth N. Colocasia esculenta: A potent indigenous plant. Int J Nutr Pharmacol Neurol Dis. 2011;1:90-6. http://www.ijnpnd.com/text.asp?2011/1/2/90/84188
Agyare C, Boakye YD, Apenteng JA, Dapaah SO, Appiah T, Adow A. Antimicrobial and Anti-Inflammatory Properties of Anchomanes difformis (Bl.) Engl. and Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott. Biochem Pharmacol. 2016;5:1. DOI: 10.4172/2167-0501.1000201
Kubde MS, Khadabadi SS, Farooqui IA, Deore SL. In-vitro anthelmintic activity of Colocasia esculenta. Der Pharma Lett. 2010;2:82-5.
Patil BR, Ageely HM. Antihepatotoxic activity of Colocasia esculenta leaf juice. Int J Adv Biotech Res. 2011;2:296-304.
Koné WM, Vargas M, Keiser J. Anthelmintic activity of medicinal plants used in Côte d’Ivoire for treating parasitic diseases. Parasitol Res. 2012;110:2351-62. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00436-011-2771-z
Joshi RK. Study on essential oil composition of the roots of Crassocephalum crepidioides (Benth.) S. Moore. J Chil Chem Soc. 2014;59:2363-65. http://dx.doi.org/10.4067/S0717-97072014000100025
Tomimori K, Nakama S, Kimura R, Tamaki K, Ishikawa C, Mori N. Antitumor activity and macrophage nitric oxide producing action of medicinal herb, Crassocephalum crepidioides. BMC Complement Altern Med. 2012;12:1-11. https://doi.org/10.1186/1472-6882-12-78
Bahar E, Akter KM, Lee GH, Lee HY, Rashid HO, Choi MK, Bhattarai KR, Hossain MMM, Ara J, Mazumder K, Raihan O. β-Cell protection and antidiabetic activities of Crassocephalum crepidioides (Asteraceae) Benth. S. Moore extract against alloxan-induced oxidative stress via regulation of apoptosis and reactive oxygen species (ROS). BMC Complement Altern Med. 2017;17:179. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12906-017-1697-0.
Rezig L, Chouaibi M, Msaada K, Hamdi H. Chemical composition and profile characterisation of pumpkin (Cucurbita maxima) seed oil. Ind Crops Prod. 2012;37: 82-7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2011.12.004
Md PM, Md TK. Overview on Cucurbita maxima seed. J Dent Med Sci. 2017;16:29-33. DOI: 10.9790/0853-1603132933
Borah A. Chemical composition, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-microbial and in-vitro cytotoxic efficacy of essential oil of Curcuma caesia Roxb. leaves: An endangered medicinal plant of North East India. Ind Crops Prod. 2019;129:448-54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2018.12.035
Baghel SS, Baghel RS, Sharma K, Sikarwar I. Pharmacological activities of Curcuma caesia. Int J Green Pharm. 2013;7:1-5. http://dx.doi.org/10.22377/ijgp.v7i1.287
Lateef EA. Bioactive chemical constituents of Curcuma longa L. rhizomes extract inhibit the growth of human hepatoma cell line (HepG2). Acta Pharm. 2016; 66:387-98. https://doi.org/10.1515/acph-2016-0028
Krup V, Prakash LH, Harini A. Pharmacological Activities of Turmeric (Curcuma longa Linn): A Review. J Homeop Ayurv Med. 2013;2:133. http://dx.doi.org/10.4172/2167-1206.1000133
Wu XY, Chao ZM, Wang C, Tan ZG, Sun W. Chemical constituents contained in fatty oil from seeds of Cucumis sativus. Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za Zhi. 2012;37:3252-5.
Saeedi R, Sultana A, Rahman K. Ethnomedicinal uses and pharmacological activities of different parts of Cucumis sativus Linn: An update. Int J Pharm. Sci Res. 2020;11:1549-56. Doi: 10.13040/IJPSR.0975-8232.11, 4, 1549-56.
Zhu SH, Zhang QJ, Chen Q, Zhou T, Yao RJ. Study on the chemical constituents of Dichrocephala integrifolia. Zhong yao cai. 2010;33:53-5.
Emégam NK, Nguepi MSD, Lambou AF, Okomolo FCM, Sotoing GT, Bougolla DP, Pale S, Kameni JSN, Bum EN. Antioxidant properties of Dichrocephala integrifolia (Asteraceae) in a mouse model of monosodium glutamate-induced neurotoxicity. Afr J Tradit Complement Altern Med. 2017;14:147-55.
Kouémou NE, Taiwe GS, Moto FC, Pale S, Ngoupaye GT, Njapdounke JS, Nkantchoua GC, Pahaye DB, Bum EN. Nootropic and neuroprotective effects of Dichrocephala integrifolia on scopolamine mouse model of Alheimer’s disease. Front Pharmacol. 2017. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2017.00847
Lee CL, Yen MH, Hwang TL, Yang JC, Peng CY, Chen CJ, Chang WY, Wu YC. Anti-inflammatory and cytotoxic component from Dichrocephala integrifolia. Phytochem Lett. 2015;12:237-42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.phytol.2015.04.012
Rene K, Olivier FG, Jacqueline NT, Hortense GK, Christine FM. Antimicrobial and antidiarrheal effects of four Cameroon medicinal plants: Dichrocephala integrifolia, Dioscorea preusii, Melenis minutiflora, and Tricalysia okelensis. Int J Curr Pharma Res. 2015;7:21-4.
Gandhi D, Mehta P. Dillenia indica Linn. and Dillenia pentagyna Roxb.: Pharmacognostic, Phytochemical and Therapeutic aspects. J App Pharm Sci. 2013;3:134-42. DOI: 10.7324/JAPS.2013.31124
Cheng WY, Kuo YH, Huang CJ. Isolation and Identification of Novel Estrogenic Compounds in Yam Tuber (Dioscorea alata Cv. Tainung No. 2). J Agric Food Chem. 2007;55:7350-8. DOI: 10.1021/jf0711690
Das A, Chaudhuri D, Chatterjee A. Study of antioxidant and reactive oxygen species scavenging activity of the edible tuber of "Greater Yam" (Dioscorea alata L.) from North-east India. Asian J Pharm Clin Res. 2012;5:74-84.
Maithili V, Dhanabal SP, Mahendran S, Vadivelan R. Antidiabetic activity of ethanolic extract of tubers of Dioscorea alata in alloxan induced diabetic rats. Indian J Pharmacol. 2011;43:455-9. https://dx.doi.org/10.4103%2F0253-7613.83121
Nono NR, Nzowa KL, Barboni L, Tapondjou AL. Drymaria cordata (Linn.) Willd (Caryophyllaceae): Ethnobotany, Pharmacology and Phytochemistry. Adv Biol Chem. 2014;4:160-7. http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/abc.2014.42020
Liu HB, Zhang CR, Dong SH, Yang SP, Sun Q, Geng MY, Yue JM. Sesquiterpenes from Dysoxylum oliganthum and Dysoxylum excelsum. J Asian Nat Prod Res. 2012;14:224-34. DOI: 10.1080/10286020.2011.645810
Jayashree R, Albert S, Minaram N. Medicinal plants of North Cachar Hills district of Assam used by the Dimasa tribe. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2012;11:520-7. http://nopr.niscair.res.in/handle/123456789/14395
Sharma BK, Ramashanker SG, Rahaman L, Nath N, Kaipeng DL. Plant based folk treatments from North East India for jaundice. (An overview). J Med Plants Stud. 2016.;4:234-47.
Lasekan O, Buettner A, Christlbauer M. Investigation of important odorants of palm wine (Elaeis guineensis). Food Chem. 2007;105:15-23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2006.12.052
Owoyele BV, Owolabi GO. Traditional oil palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) and its medicinal uses: A review. Tang Humanitas Medicines. 2014. http://dx.doi.org/10.5667/tang.2014.0004
Yin NGS, Abdullah S, Phin CK. Phytochemical constituents from leaves of Elaeis guineensis and their antioxidant and antimicrobial activities. Int J Pharm Pharm Sci. 2013;5:137-40.
Shivprasad M, Varsha J. GC-MS Screening of Some Bioactive Compounds from Methanolic Extract of Medicinally Relevant Wild Edible Plant Parts. Int J Sci Res Sci Tech. 2018;4:49-56
Sethiya NK, Brahmbhat K, Chauhan B, Mishra SH. Pharmacognostic and phytochemical investigation of Ensete superbum (Roxb.) Cheesman pseudostem. Indian J Nat Prod Resour. 2016;7:51-8. http://nopr.niscair.res.in/handle/123456789/34105
Akter K, Barnes EC, Loa-Kum-Cheung WL, Yin P, Kichu M, Brophy JJ, Barrow RA, Imchen I, Vemulpad SR, Jamie JF. Antimicrobial and antioxidant activity and chemical characterisation of Erythrina stricta Roxb. (Fabaceae). J Ethnopharmacol. 2016;185:171-81. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.03.011.
Araújo-Júnior JX, de Oliveira MS, Aquino PG, Alexandre-Moreira MS, Sant’Ana AE. A phytochemical and ethnopharmacological review of the genus Erythrina in Phytochemicals. In: Rao V, editors. A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health. London: InTech; 2012. p. 327-49.
Subhashini N, Purnima S, Devi JA, Thirupathi AT, Lavanya N. Anti-Inflammatory activity of Erythrina stricta Roxb. in Albino Rats. Int J Pharm Tech Res. 2011;3:1014-8.
Hada S, Yadav DK, Roat P, Kumari N. Eulophia Nuda: A Review of Its Traditional Uses, Phytochemistry and Pharmacology. Pharm Chem J. 2020;54:40-5. DOI: 10.1007/s11094-020-02152-8
Jain JB, Kumane SC, Bhattacharya S. Medicinal flora of Madhya Pradesh and Chattisgarh – A Review. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2006;5:237-42. http://nopr.niscair.res.in/handle/123456789/6845
Pascal OA, Bertrand AEV, Esaïe T, Sylvie HAM, Eloi AY. A review of the ethnomedical uses, phytochemistry and pharmacology of the Euphorbia genus. J Pharm Innov. 2017;6:34-9
Rauf A, Muhammad N, Qaisar M, Uddin G, Hussain I. Preliminary Antinociceptive Studies of Methanol Extract of Euphorbia milli. Middle-East J Med Plants Res. 2012;1:68-70. DOI: 10.5829/idosi.mejmpr.2011.1.3.1115
Saleem H, Zengin G, Locatelli M, Mollica A, Ahmad I, Mahomoodally FM, Abidin SAZ, Ahemad N. In vitro biological propensities and chemical profiling of Euphorbia milii Des Moul (Euphorbiaceae): A novel source for bioactive agents. Ind Crops Prod. 2019;130:9-15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2018.12.062
Wang P, Xie C, An L, Yang X, Xi Y, Yuan S, Zhang C, Tuerhong M, Jin DQ, Lee D, Zhang J. Bioactive Diterpenoids from the Stems of Euphorbia royleana. J Nat Prod. 2019;82:183-93. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jnatprod.8b00493
Ashraf A, Sarfraz RA, Rashid MA, Shahi M. Antioxidant, antimicrobial, antitumor, and cytotoxic activities of an important medicinal plant (Euphorbia royleana) from Pakistan. J Food Drug Anal. 2015;23:109-15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfda.2014.05.007.
Bani S, Kaul A, Jaggi BS, Suri KA, Suri OP, Sharma OP. Anti-inflammatory activity of the hydrosoluble fraction of Euphorbia royleana latex. Fitoterapia. 2000;71:655-62. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0367-326X(00)00225-2
Wang GC, Liang JP, Wang Y, Li Q, Ye WC. Chemical Constituents from Flueggea virosa. Chinese J Nat Med. 2008;6:251-3. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1875-5364(09)60022-4
Chao CH, Cheng JC, Shen DY, Huang HC, Wu YC, Wu TS. Terpenoids from Flueggea virosa and their anti-hepatitis C virus activity. Phytochemistry. 2016;128: 60-70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.phytochem.2016.04.003
Ezeonwumelu JOC, Omar AN, Ajayi AM, Okoruwa AG, Tanayen JK, Kiplagat DM, Okpanachi OA, Abba S, Ezekiel I, Onchweri AN, Okonkwo CO. Phytochemical screening, acute toxicity, anti-inflammatory and anti-pyretic studies of aqueous extract of the root of Flueggea virosa (Roxb. ex Willd.) in rats. Int J Pharm Biomed Sci. 2012;3:128-35.
Wang GC, Li T, Deng FY, Li YL, Ye WC. Five new phenolic glycosides from Hedyotis scandens. Bioorganic Med Chem Lett. 2013;5:1379-82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bmcl.2012.12.077
Rahman MA, Uddin SB, Wilcock CC. Medicinal plants used by Chakma tribe in Hill Tracts districts of Bangladesh. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2007;6:508-17. http://nopr.niscair.res.in/handle/123456789/991
Subba B, Basne P. Antimicrobial activity of some medicinal plants from east and central part of Nepal. Int J Appl Sci Biotechnol. 2014;2:88-92. https://doi.org/10.3126/ijasbt.v2i1.9697
Jadhav VM, Thorat RM, Kadam VJ, Sathe NS. Hibiscus rosa sinensis Linn – ‘‘Rudrapuspa’’: A Review. J Pharm Res. 2009;2:1168-73.
Mak YM, Chuah LO, Ahmad R, Bhat R. Antioxidant and antibacterial activities of hibiscus (Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L.) and Cassia (Senna bicapsularis L.) flower extracts. J King Saud Univ Sci. 2013;25(4):275-82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jksus.2012.12.003
Fu J, Dai L, Lin Z, Lu H. Houttuynia cordata Thunb: A Review of Phytochemistry and Pharmacology and Quality Control. Chinese Med. 2013;4:101-23. Doi: 10.4236/cm.2013.43015.
Mohanraj R, Sivasankar S. Sweet Potato (Ipomoea batatas [L.] Lam) - A Valuable Medicinal Food: A Review. J Med Food. 2014;17:733-41. https://doi.org/10.1089/jmf.2013.2818
Hossain S, Ahmed R, Bhowmick S, Al Mamun A, Hashimoto M. Proximate composition and fatty acid analysis of Lablab purpureus (L.) legume seed: implicates to both protein and essential fatty acid supplementation. Springer Plus. 2016;5:1899. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40064-016-3587-1
Al-Snafi AE. The pharmacology and medical importance of Dolichos lablab (Lablab purpureus)-A review. IOSR J Pharm. 2017;7:22-30.
Wei JC, Wang PC, Zhou XI. The caffeoyl phenylethanoid glycosides from Lindernia ruellioides and their anti-HBV effects. J Asian Nat Prod Res. 2018;20: 757-62. https://doi.org/10.1080/10286020.2017.1357549
Das AK, Nongmaithem R. Phytochemical study of selected medicinal plants used by the maring tribe of Chandel district, Manipur, India. J Pharmacogn Phytochem. 2019;8:2155-60.
Kuruvilla GR, Neeraja M, Srikrishna A, Rao SGRS. A new quinone from Maesa indica (Roxb) A DC, (Myrsinaceae). Indian J Chem Sect B. 2010;49:1637-41.
Patil A, Jadhav V, Arvindekar A, More T. Antidiabetic activity of Maesa indica (Roxb). stem bark in Streptozotoc in induced diabetic rats. American J Phytomed Clin Ther. 2014;2:957-62.
Wei L, Wee W, Siong J, Syamsumir D. Characterization of antimicrobial, antioxidant, anticancer property and chemical composition of Michelia champaca seed and flower extracts. Stamford J Pharm Sci. 2011;4:19-24. https://doi.org/10.3329/sjps.v4i1.8862
Vimala R, Nagarajan S, Alam M, Susan T, Joy S. Anti-inflammatory and Antipyretic Activity of Michelia champaca Linn., (White Variety), Ixora Brachiata Roxb. and Rhynchosia Cana (Willd.) D.C. Flower Extract. Indian J Exp Biol. 1997; 35;1310-14.
Dan GD, Yi Z, Wei LE, Tao W, Min HL. Chemical constituents of Mangifera indica leaves (I). Zhong Cao Yao. 2011;42:428-31. http://www.ceps.com.tw/ec/ecJnlIntro.aspx?Jnliid=2790
Parvez GMM. Pharmacological activities of mango (Mangifera indica): A review. J Pharmacogn Phytochem 2016;5:1-7.
Pandey AK, Rai MK, Acharya D. Chemical Composition and Antimycotic Activity of the Essential Oils of Corn Mint (Mentha arvensis) and Lemon Grass (Cymbopogon flexuosus) Against Human Pathogenic Fungi. Pharm Biol. 2003;41: 421-5. https://doi.org/10.1076/phbi.41.6.421.17825
Thawkar BS, Jawarkar AG, Kalamkar PV, Pawar KP, Kale MK. Phytochemical and pharmacological review of Mentha arvensis. Int J Green Pharm. 2016;10:2. http://dx.doi.org/10.22377/ijgp.v10i2.643
Chow YL, Quon HH. Chemical constituents of the heartwood of Mesua ferrea. Phytochemistry. 1968;7:1871-4. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0031-9422(00)86662-5
Chahar MK, Sanjaya KDS, Geetha L, Lokesh T, Manohara KP. Mesua ferrea L.: A review of the medical evidence for its phytochemistry and pharmacological actions. Afr J Pharm Pharmacol. 2013;7:211-9. https://doi.org/10.5897/AJPP12.895
Shao H, Nan P, Peng S, Zhang C. Study of chemical constituents of essential oil from flowers of Mikania micrantha. Zhong yao cai. 2001;24:341-2.
Dev UK, Md Hossain T, Md Islam Z. Phytochemical investigation, antioxidant activity and antihelmintic activity of Mikania micrantha leaves. World J Pharma Res. 2015;4:121-33.
Lentz DL, Clark AM, Hufford CD, Meurer-Grimes B, Passreiter CM, Cordero J, Ibrahimi O, Okunade AL. Antimicrobial properties of Honduran medicinal plants. J Ethnopharmacol. 1998;63:253-63. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-8741(98)00100-7
Yuan K, Lü JL, Yin MW. Chemical constituents of C-glycosylflavones from Mimosa pudica. Yao Xue Xue Bao. 2006;41:435-8.
Joseph B, George J, Mohan J. Pharmacology and Traditional Uses of Mimosa pudica. Int J Pharma Sci Drug Res. 2013;5:41-4.
Farrag EK, Kassem MES, Bayoumi D, Shaker SE, Afifi MS. Phytochemical study, phenolic profile and antigastric ulcer activity of Morus macroura Miq. fruits extract. J Appl Pharm Sci. 2017;7:152-60. DOI: 10.7324/JAPS.2017.70527
Sidhu JS, Zafar TA. Bioactive compounds in banana fruits and their health benefits. Food Qual Saf. 2018;2:183-8. https://doi.org/10.1093/fqsafe/fyy019
Jyothirmayi N, Rao NM. Banana Medicinal Uses. J Med Sci Tech. 2015;4:152-60.
Mathew NS, Negi PS. Traditional uses, phytochemistry and pharmacology of wild banana (Musa acuminata Colla): A review. J Ethnopharmacol. 2017;196:124-40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.12.009
Kim NC, Desjardins AE, Wu CD, Kinghorn AD. Activity of Triterpenoid Glycosides from the Root Bark of Mussaenda macrophylla against Two Oral Pathogens. J Nat Prod. 1999;62:1379-84. https://doi.org/10.1021/np9901579
Chowdhury SR, Akter S, Sharmin T, Islam F, Quadery TM. Antimicrobial activity of five medicinal plants of Bangladesh. J Pharmacogn Phytochem. 2013;2:164-70.
Shadia E, El-Aziz A, Omer EA, Sabra AS. Chemical Composition of Ocimum americanum Essential Oil and Its Biological Effects Against, Agrotis ipsilon, (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). Res J Agric Biol Sci. 2007;3:740-7.
Hakkim FL, Arivazhagan G, Boopathy R. Antioxidant property of selected Ocimum species and their secondary metabolite content. J Med Plant Res. 2008;2: 250-7.
Thaweboon S, Thaweboon B. In vitro antimicrobial activity of Ocimum americanum L. essential oil against oral microorganisms. Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health. 2009;40:1025-33.
Ahad A, Ganai AA, Sareer O, Najm MZ, Kausar MA, Mujeeb M, Siddiqui WA. Therapeutic potential of oroxylum indicum: a review. J Pharma Res Opinion. 2012;2:163-72.
Singh HV, Chaudhary AK. A Review on the Taxonomy, Ethnobotany, Chemistry and Pharmacology of Oroxylum indicum Vent. Indian J Pharm Sci. 2011;73:483-90. https://dx.doi.org/10.4103%2F0250-474X.98981
Hussain A, Oves M, Alajmi MF, Hussain I, Amir S, Ahmed J, Rehman MT, El-Seedi HR, Ali I. Biogenesis of ZnO nanoparticles using Pandanus odorifer leaf extract: anticancer and antimicrobial activities. RSC Adv. 2019;9:15357-69. https://doi.org/10.1039/C9RA01659G
Angami T, Bhagawati R, Touthang L, Makdoh B, Bharati KA, Silambarasan R, Ayyanar M. Traditional uses, phytochemistry and biological activities of Parkia timoriana (DC.) Merr., an underutilized multipurpose tree bean: A review. Genet Resour Crop Evol. 2018.;65:679-92. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10722-017-0595-0.
Gaire BP, Subedi L. Phytochemistry, pharmacology and medicinal properties of Phyllanthus emblica Linn. Chin J Integr Med. 2014. DOI: 10.1007/s11655-014-1984-2
Lin HY, Yuan CY, Xin WY, Peng LD, Juan CW, Lei LJ, Lai LF. Chemical constituents of Picria fel-terrae. Guangxi Zhiwu / Guihaia. 2010;30:887-90.
Kumarasingha R, Karpe AV, Preston S, Yeo TC, Lim DS, Tu CL, Luu J, Simpson KJ, Shaw JM, Gasser RB, Beale DJ. Metabolic profiling and in vitro assessment of anthelmintic fractions of Picria fel-terrae Lour. Int J Parasitol Drugs Drug Resist. 2016;6:171-8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpddr.2016.08.002
Satria D, Silalahi J, Haro G, Ilyas S, Hsb PAZ. Antioxidant and Antiproliferative Activities of an Ethylacetate Fraction of Picria fel-terrae Lour. Herbs. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev. 2017;18;399-403. https://dx.doi.org/10.22034%2FAPJCP.2017.18.2.399
Samuelsen AB. The traditional uses, chemical constituents and biological activities of Plantago major L. A review. J Ethnopharmacol. 2000;71:1-21. DOI: 10.13040/IJPSR.0975-8232.11(4).1549-56
Begum S, Hassan SI, Ali SN, Siddiqui BS. Chemical constituents from the leaves of Psidium guajava, Nat Prod Res. 2004;18:135-40. https://doi.org/10.1080/14786410310001608019
Martha R, Gutiérrez P, Mitchell S, Solis RS. Psidium guajava: A review of its traditional uses, phytochemistry and pharmacology. J Ethnopharmacol. 2008;117:1-27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2008.01.025
Tai Z, Zhang F, Cai L, Shi J, Cao Q, Ding Z. Flavonol glycosides of Pseudodrynaria coronans and their antioxidant activity. Chem Nat Compd. 2012; 48:221-4. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10600-012-0209-1
Jasuja ND, Saxena R, Chandra S, Sharma R. Pharmacological characterization and beneficial uses of Punica granatum. Asain J Plant Sci. 2012;11:251-67.
Djakpo O, Yao W. Rhus chinensis and Galla chinensis – Folklore to Modern Evidence: Review. Phytother Res. 2010;24:1739-47. https://doi.org/10.1002/ptr.3215
Rishi P, Bimala S. Extraction and Isolation of Chemical Constituents from Schima wallichii Bark. Int J Eng Sci Res Tech. 2014;3:175-80.
Das S, Ghosh LK. Evaluation of Analgesic, Antipyretic and Anti-Inflammatory Activity of Different Fractions of Schima wallichii Barks. Pharmacologia. 2013;4:400-3. http://dx.doi.org/10.5567/pharmacologia.2013.400.403
Sarbadhikary SB, Bhowmik S, Datta BK, Mandal NC. Antimicrobial and antioxidant activity of leaf extracts of two indigenous angiosperm species of Tripura. Int J Curr Microbiol App Sci. 2015;4:643-55.
Wang D, Huang L, Chen S. Senecio scandens Buch-Ham.: A review on its ethnopharmacology, phytochemistry, pharmacology, and toxicity. J Ethnopharmacol. 2013;149:1-23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2013.05.048
Hua S, Zhang Y, Liu J, Dong L, Huang J, Lin D, Fu X. Ethnomedicine, Phytochemistry and Pharmacology of Smilax glabra: An Important Traditional Chinese Medicine. Am J Chin Med. 2018;46:261-97. https://doi.org/10.1142/S0192415X18500143
Biao CY, Ming ZD, Shan YS. Chemical Constituents of Smilax perfoliata. Acta Bot Sin. 2004;46:618-20.
Borkataky M. Antimcrobial and antioxidant activity of Smilax perfoliate Lour. Der Pharm Lett. 2014;6:246-50.
Zhao Y, Liu F, Lou HX. Studies on the chemical constituents of Solanum nigrum. Zhong Yao Cai. 2010;33:555-6.
Hameed HI, Calixto CMR, Yahya HM. A Review: Solanum nigrum L. Antimicrobial, Antioxidant properties, Hepatoprotective effects and Analysis of Bioactive Natural Compounds. Res J Pharm Tech. 2017;10:4063-8. http://dx.doi.org/10.5958/0974-360X.2017.00737.5
Jain RAS, Gupta SSPI, Gabrani R. Solanum nigrum: current perspectives on therapeutic properties. Altern Med Rev. 2011;16:78-85.
Chang FR, Yen CT, El-Shazly M, Yu CY, Yen MH, Cheng YB, Chen SL, Wu YC. Spirostanoids with 1,4-dien-3-one or 3β,7α-diol-5,6-ene moieties from Solanum violaceum. Bioorg Med Chem Lett. 2013;23:2738-42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bmcl.2013.02.060
Karim A, Islam B, Tareq SM, Islam MT. Antinociceptive and antipyretic activities of Solanum violaceum Ortega. Int J Med. 2017;5:90-3. Doi:10.14419/ijm.v5i1.7282
Mahaldar K, SaifuzMahaldar K, Saifuzzaman M, Irin T, Barman AK, Islam MK, Rahman MM, Islam MA. Analgesic, anthelmintic and toxicity studies of Solanum violaceum Linn. leaves. Orient Pharm Exp Med. 2016;16:147-52. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13596-016-0227-9
Yen CT, Lee CL, Chang FR, Hwang TL, Yen HF, Chen CJ, Chen SL, Wu YC. Indiosides G–K: Steroidal Glycosides with Cytotoxic and Anti-inflammatory Activities from Solanum violaceum. J Nat Prod. 2012;75:636-43. https://doi.org/10.1021/np200877u
Bora NS, Kakoti BB, Gogoi B, Goswami AK. Ethno-medicinal claims, phytochemistry and pharmacology of Spondias pinnata: A review. Int J pharm Sci Res. 2014;5:1138-45. DOI: 10.13040/IJPSR.0975-8232.5(4).
Goswami DV, Nirmal SA, Patil MJ, Dighe NS, Laware NS, Patta SR. An Overview of Tectona grandis: Chemistry and Pharmacological Profile. Phcog Rev. 2009;3:181-5.
Vyas P, Yadav DK, Khandelwal P. Tectona grandis (Teak) – A review on its phytochemical and therapeutic potential. Nat Prod Res. 2019;33:2338-54.
El-Ghorab A, El-Massry KF, Shibamoto T. Chemical Composition of the Volatile Extract and Antioxidant Activities of the Volatile and Nonvolatile Extracts of Egyptian Corn Silk (Zea mays L.). J Agric Food Chem. 2007;55:9124-7. DOI: 10.1021/jf071646e
Mendoza-Díaz S, del Carmen Ortiz-Valerio M, Castaño-Tostado E, de Dios Figueroa-Cárdenas J, Reynoso-Camacho R, Ramos-Gómez M, Campos-Vega R, Loarca-Piña G. Antioxidant Capacity and Antimutagenic Activity of Anthocyanin and Carotenoid Extracts from Nixtamalized Pigmented Creole Maize Races (Zea mays L.). Plant Foods Hum Nutr. 2012;67:442-9. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11130-012-0326-9
Nessa F, Ismail Z, Mohamed N. Antimicrobial Activities of Extracts and Flavonoid Glycosides of Corn Silk (Zea mays L). Int J Biotechnol Wellness Ind. 2012;1:115-21.
Gupta SK, Sharma A. Medicinal properties of Zingiber officinale Roscoe - A Review. IOSR J Pharm Biol Sci. 2011;5:124-9.
Rehman R, Akram M, Akhtar N, Jabeen Q, Shah SA, Ahmed K, Shaheen G, Asif HM. Zingiber officinale Roscoe (Parmacological activity). J Med Plants Res. 2011;5:344-8.
Çakılcıoğlu U, Khatun S, Türkoğlu I, Hayta S. Ethnopharmacological survey of medicinal plants in Maden (Elazığ–Turkey). J Ethnopharmacol. 2011;137:469-86. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2011.05.046
Akindele AJ, Ibe IF, Adeyemi OO. Analgesic and antipyretic activities of Drymaria cordata (Linn.) Willd (Caryophyllaceae) extract. Afr J Tradit Complement Altern Med. 2012;9:25-35.
Proma JJ, Faruque MO, Rahman S, Bashar ABMA, Rahmatullah M. Analgesic potential and phytochemical screening of Lablab purpureus aerial parts. World J Pharm Pharmaceut Sci. 2014;3:165-73.
Bakir M, Facey PC, Hassan I, Mulder WH, Porter RB. Mikanolide from Jamaican Mikania micrantha. Acta Crystallographica Section C: Crystal Structure Communications. . 2004;6:11. DOI: 10.1107/S0108270104017809
Koriem KM, Arbid MS, Saleh HN. Antidiarrheal and protein conservative activities of Psidium guajava in diarrheal rats. J Integr Med. 2019;17:57-65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joim.2018.12.001
Salama AA, El-Kassaby MI, Hassan A. Anti-urolithiatic activity of Solanum nigrum hydroalcoholic extract in ethylene glycol-induced urolithiasis in rats. Egypt Pharmaceut J. 2019;18:311. https://www.epj.eg.net/text.asp?2019/18/4/311/272269.
Yirga G, Teferi M, Gidey G, Zerabruk S. An ethnoveterinary survey of medicinal plants used to treat livestock diseases in Seharti-Samre district, Northern Ethiopia. Afr J Plant Sci. 2012;6:113–9. https://doi.org/10.5897/AJPS11.242
Parthiban R, Vijayakumar S, Prabhu S, Gnanaselvam J, Yabesh EM. Quantitative traditional knowledge of medicinal plants used to treat livestock diseases from Kudavasal taluk of Thiruvarur district, Tamil Nadu, India. Rev Bras Farmacogn. 2016;26:109-21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bjp.2015.07.016
Jadid N, Kurniawan E, Himayani CES, Prasetyowati I, Purwani KI, Muslihatin W, Hidayati D, Tjahjaningrum ITD. An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used by the Tengger tribe in Ngadisari village, Indonesia. Plos one. 2020;15:7. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0235886
Addo-Fordjour P, Kofi Anning A, Durosimi Belford EJ, Akonnor D. Diversity and conservation of medicinal plants in the Bomaa community of the Brong Ahafo region, Ghana. J Med Plants Res. 2008;2:226-33.
Ghorbani A. Studies on pharmaceutical ethnobotany in the region of Turkmen Sahra, north of Iran (Part 1): general results. J Ethnopharmacol. 2005;102:58–68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2005.05.035
Poonam K, Singh GS. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used by the Taungya community in Terai Arc Landscape, India. J Ethnopharmacol. 2009;123: 167-76. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2009.02.037
Luseba D, Tshisikhawe MP. Medicinal plants used in the treatment of live-stock diseases in Vhembe region, Limpopo province, S Afr J Med Plants Res. 2014;7: 593-601. https://doi.org/10.5897/JMPR12.1213
Mahwasane ST, Middleton L, Boaduo N. An ethnobotanical survey of indigenous knowledge on medicinal plants used by the traditional healers of the Lwamondo area, Limpopo province, South Africa. S Afr J Bot. 2013;88:69-75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sajb.2013.05.004
Saha MR, Sarker DD, Sen A. Ethnoveterinary practices among the tribal community of Malda district of West Bengal, India. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2014;13: 359-67. http://nopr.niscair.res.in/handle/123456789/27931
Verma RK, Kumari P, Maurya RK, Kumar V, Verma RB, Singh RK. Medicinal properties of turmeric (Curcuma longa L.): A review. Int J Chem Stud. 2018;6(4):1354-7.
Singh AG, Kumar A, Tewari DD. An ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants used in Terai forest of western Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomedicine. 2012; 8:19. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-8-19
Chaudhary MI, He Q, Cheng YY, Xiao PG. Ethnobotany of medicinal plants from Tian Mu Shan biosphere reserve, Zhejiang-Province, China. Asian J Plant Sci. 2006;5:646-53.
Çakılcıoğlu U, Türkoğlu I. An ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants in Sivrice (Elazığ-Turkey). J Ethnopharmacol. 2010;132:165-75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2010.08.017
Rajakumar N, Shivanna MB. Ethnomedicinal application of plants in the eastern region of Shimoga District, Karnataka, India. J Ethnopharmacol. 2009;126:64-73. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2009.08.010

PDF

Journal Publication

published 24 Mar, 2022

Read the published version in Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine →

Editorial decision: Major Revision
24 Nov, 2021
Reviewer #2 agreed at journal
30 Oct, 2021
Review #1 received at journal
30 Oct, 2021
Reviews received at journal
28 Oct, 2021
Reviewer #1 agreed at journal
27 Oct, 2021
Reviewers invited by journal
27 Oct, 2021
Editor assigned by journal
27 Oct, 2021
Submission checks completed at journal
26 Oct, 2021
Editor invited by journal
26 Oct, 2021
First submitted to journal
26 Oct, 2021

You are reading this latest preprint version

Ethnomedicinal Study of Medicinal Plants Used by Mizo Tribes in Champhai District of Mizoram, India.

Status:

Journal Publication

Version 1

Abstract

Background

Methods

Results

Conclusion

Figures

Background

Methods

Description of study Area

Investigative method

Characteristics of demographic data

Quantitative analysis

Frequency of citation (FC)

Use Value

Informant Consensus Factor

Results

Demographic characteristics

Taxonomy Identification

Frequency of usage of parts of plants

Mode of preparation and administration

Usage analysis based on the treatment of ailments

Data analysis

Frequency of citation

Plant use value

Informant Consensus Factor

Correlation and Validation studies

Discussion

Conclusions

Abbreviations

Declarations

References

Status:

Journal Publication

Version 1