Traditional knowledge and homegarden management
According to semi-structured interviews with three intangible cultural heritage inheritors and about 120 knowledgeable informants, we collected traditional knowledge about Salar people and their homegardens.
Salar people maintain that during the thirteenth century their ancestors left Samarkand in present-day Uzbekistan and eventually settled in what is now Xunhua Autonomous County. Linguistic similarities between Salar, Turkoman, and Uzbek suggest a close relationship at some time in the past. The ‘Camel dance’ is a type of play that relates directly to the Salar's migration reminding them of their ancestors' trek from Samarkand and helping them remember their Central Asian origins. Salar people believe that there are three life duties need to follow: marriage should occur at a young age and the engagement should send agreement tea. The deceased must be buried quickly. Debts should be paid on time.
The agriculture of Salar people is mainly based on planting. When their ancestors migrated from Central Asia to Xunhua County, they brought black and white wheat, which proved that their ancestors were engaged in planting when they lived in Central Asia. Salar people cultivate fruit and vegetable in homegarden. They called “Bahe” for homegarden, which is first one on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. The cultivation and management of homegarden has transformed the unique culture and livelihood of Salar people through the transformation of several generations. For Salar people, most older females participate in the establishment, care and management of homegarden. It requires little time and labor relative to primary farming activities and are mostly maintained by household members during free time to flexible schedules. males are increasingly engaging in small business or go out for work. Upon their return, bring new ideas and plants that might transform the homegarden biodiversity and landscape. Due to large purchases of potted plants and climate change, crop pests and diseases are increasing year by year, especially fruit trees. Householders cited a labor shortage (e.g. lack of labor and physical exhaustion) as a challenge for both pest and disease management. Many HGs managers also intended to plant new crop species, and buy seeds from the town markets, and there is also a small amount from the government benefits and internet. Farmers in the surveyed homegardens continuously exchange and select species and varieties of homegarden crops. Planting materials were largely inherited from family members or received from neighbors. Some planting materials were purchased locally or from local markets and markets in another place. Traditional management practices for soil fertility were surveyed in some homegardens, including applications of pit-composted household, Livestock manure and farm wastes and farmyard manure, as well as intercropping.
Species diversity in homegarden
Homegarden are recognized worldwide as sustainable agroforestry systems that are repositories of species and genetic diversity. During household survey, in total 108 (excluding weeds and bonsai) plant species were recorded in Salar communities, with 43 families and an average number of 4 to 32 species per home-garden in three townships. The 60 surveyed gardens contained 42 ornamental species (Table 2), 27 vegetable species (Table 3), 24 fruit species (Table 4), and 15 species with other purposes (Table 5). Ornamentals were the most species-rich use category followed by vegetables, fruits, and 15 species for other purposes.
Table 2
Ornamentals recorded and used in homegardens
No.
|
Scientific name
|
Family
|
Uses
|
1
|
Acorus calamus
|
Acoraceae
|
Ornamental
|
2
|
Alcea rosea L.
|
Malvaceae
|
Ornamental
|
3
|
Amygdalus triloba (Lindl.) Ricker
|
Rosaceae
|
Ornamental
|
4
|
Belamcanda chinensis (L.) Redouté
|
Iridaceae
|
Ornamental
|
5
|
Bougainvillea glabra Choisy
|
Nyctaginaceae
|
Ornamental
|
6
|
Calendula officinalis L.
|
Compositae
|
Ornamental
|
7
|
Callistephus chinensis (L.) Nees
|
Compositae
|
Ornamental
|
8
|
Canna indica L.
|
Cannaceae
|
Ornamental
|
9
|
Celosia cristata L.
|
Amaranthaceae
|
Ornamental, Experimental
|
10
|
Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat.
|
Compositae
|
Ornamental
|
11
|
Cosmos bipinnata Cav.
|
Compositae
|
Ornamental
|
12
|
Dahlia pinnata Cav.
|
Compositae
|
Ornamental
|
13
|
Dicentra spectabilis (L.) Lem.
|
Papaveraceae
|
Ornamental
|
14
|
Eschscholtzia californica Cham.
|
Papaveraceae
|
Ornamental
|
15
|
Fuchsia hybrida Hort. ex Sieb. et Voss.
|
Onagraceae
|
Ornamental
|
16
|
Helianthus annuus L.
|
Compositae
|
Ornamental, snacks
|
17
|
Hemerocallis fulva (L.) L.
|
Liliaceae
|
Ornamental
|
18
|
Hosta plantaginea (Lam.) Aschers.
|
Liliaceae
|
Ornamental
|
19
|
Ipomoea nil (L.) Roth
|
Convolvulaceae
|
Ornamental
|
20
|
Iris tectorum
|
Iridaceae
|
Ornamental
|
21
|
Lilium brownii var. viridulum Baker.
|
Liliaceae
|
Ornamental
|
22
|
Lilium pumilum DC.
|
Liliaceae
|
Ornamental
|
23
|
Lilium tigrinum Ker Gawl.
|
Liliaceae
|
Ornamental
|
24
|
Nerium oleander L.
|
Apocynaceae
|
Ornamental
|
25
|
Osmanthus fragrans (Thunb.) Lour.
|
Oleaceae
|
Ornamental, Perfume
|
26
|
Paeonia anomala L. subsp. veitchii (Lynch) D. Y. Hong et K. Y. Pan
|
Paeoniaceae
|
Ornamental
|
27
|
Paeonia lactiflora Pall.
|
Ranunculaceae
|
Ornamental
|
28
|
Paeonia suffruticosa Andr.
|
Ranunculaceae
|
Ornamental
|
29
|
Pelargonium hortorum Bailey
|
Ranunculaceae
|
Ornamental
|
30
|
Rosa chinensis Jacq.
|
Rosaceae
|
Ornamental
|
31
|
Rosa multiflora Thunb.
|
Rosaceae
|
Ornamental
|
32
|
Rosa multiflora Thunb. var. carnea Thory
|
Rosaceae
|
Ornamental
|
33
|
Rosa rugosa Thunb.
|
Rosaceae
|
Ornamental
|
34
|
Rosa xanthina Lindl.
|
Rosaceae
|
Ornamental
|
35
|
Rudbeckia laciniata L.
|
Compositae
|
Ornamental
|
36
|
Salvia splendens Ker-Gawl.
|
Labiatae
|
Ornamental
|
37
|
Sorbaria sorbifolia (L.) A. Br.
|
Rosaceae
|
Ornamental
|
38
|
Syringa reticulata subsp. amurensis (Rupr.) P. S. Green et M. C. Chang.
|
Oleaceae
|
Ornamental
|
39
|
Tagetes erecta L.
|
Compositae
|
Ornamental
|
40
|
Tropaeolum majus L.
|
Tropaeolaceae
|
Ornamental
|
41
|
Viola tricolor L.
|
Violaceae
|
Ornamental
|
42
|
Zinnia elegans Jacq.
|
Compositae
|
Ornamental
|
Table 3
Fruit species recorded from homegardens
No.
|
Scientific name
|
Family
|
Uses
|
1
|
Amygdalus persica L.
|
Rosaceae
|
Fruit, Shade
|
2
|
Armeniaca vulgaris Lam.
|
Rosaceae
|
Fruit, Shade
|
3
|
Cerasus pseudocerasus (Lindl.) G. Don
|
Rosaceae
|
Fruit
|
4
|
Chaenomeles sinensis (Thouin) Koehne
|
Rosaceae
|
Experimental
|
5
|
Citrullus lanatus (Thunb.) Matsum. et Nakai
|
Cucurbitaceae
|
Fruit
|
6
|
Citrus reticulata Blanco
|
Rutaceae
|
Fruit, Ornamental
|
7
|
Crataegus pinnatifida Bge.
|
Rosaceae
|
Fruit, Shade
|
8
|
Diospyros kaki Thunb.
|
Ebenaceae
|
Fruit, Shade
|
9
|
Elaeagnus angustifolia L.
|
Elaeagnaceae
|
Fruit, Perfume
|
10
|
Eriobotrya japonica (Thunb.) Lindl.
|
Rosaceae
|
Experimental
|
11
|
Ficus carica L.
|
Moraceae
|
Dry fruit
|
12
|
Fragaria × ananassa Duch.
|
Rosaceae
|
Fruit
|
13
|
Juglans regia L.
|
Juglandaceae
|
Dry fruit, shade
|
14
|
Malus pumila Mill.
|
Rosacea
|
Fruit
|
15
|
Morus alba L.
|
Moraceae
|
Fruit
|
16
|
Prunus cerasifera Ehrhar f. atropurpurea (Jacq.) Rehd.
|
Rosacea
|
Fruit, Shade
|
17
|
Prunus domestica L.
|
Rosaceae
|
Fruit
|
18
|
Prunus persica var.nectarina Maxim.
|
Rosaceae
|
Fruit
|
19
|
Prunus salicina Lindl.
|
Rosaceae
|
Fruit
|
20
|
Punica granatum L.
|
Punicaceae
|
Experimental, Fruit
|
21
|
Pyrus ussuriensis Maxim.
|
Rosaceae
|
Fruit
|
22
|
Sorbus alnifolia (Sieb. et Zucc.) K. Koch
|
Rosaceae
|
Fruit, Shade
|
23
|
Vitis vinifera L.
|
Vitaceae
|
Fruit, Ornamental
|
24
|
Ziziphus jujuba Mill.
|
Rhamnaceae
|
Fruit
|
Table 4
Vegetables recorded from homegardens
No.
|
Scientific name
|
Family
|
Uses
|
1
|
Allium fistulosum
|
Liliaceae
|
Vegetable, Spice
|
2
|
Allium tuberosum
|
Liliaceae
|
Vegetable, Spice
|
3
|
Apium graveolens L.
|
Umbelliferae
|
Vegetable, Medicinal
|
4
|
Beta vulgaris L.
|
Chenopodiaceae
|
Vegetable, Spice
|
5
|
Brassica chinensis L. var. oleifera Makino et Namot
|
Cruciferae
|
Vegetable
|
6
|
Brassica oleracea L.
|
Cruciferae
|
Vegetable
|
7
|
Brassica oleracea L. var. botrytis L.
|
Cruciferae
|
Vegetable
|
8
|
Capsicum annuum L.
|
Solanaceae
|
Vegetable, Spice
|
9
|
Chrysanthemum coronarium L.
|
Compositae
|
Vegetable
|
10
|
Cichorium endivia L.
|
Compositae
|
Vegetable
|
11
|
Coriandrum sativum L.
|
Umbelliferae
|
Vegetable, Spice
|
12
|
Cucumis sativus L.
|
Cucurbitaceae
|
Vegetable, Ornamental
|
13
|
Cucurbita moschata (Duch. ex Lam.) Duch. ex Poiret
|
Cucurbitaceae
|
Vegetable
|
14
|
Cucurbita pepo L.
|
Cucurbitaceae
|
Vegetable
|
15
|
Lactuca sativa L. var. ramosa Hort.
|
Compositae
|
Vegetable
|
16
|
Lactuca sativa var. longifolia Lam
|
Compositae
|
Vegetable
|
17
|
Luffa cylindrica (L.) Roem.
|
Cucurbitaceae
|
Vegetable
|
18
|
Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.
|
Solanaceae
|
Vegetable
|
19
|
Phaseolus vulgaris L.
|
Leguminosae
|
Vegetable
|
20
|
Pisum sativum L.
|
Leguminosae
|
Vegetable
|
21
|
Raphanus sativus L.
|
Cruciferae
|
Vegetable
|
22
|
Solanum melongena L.
|
Solanaceae
|
Vegetable
|
23
|
Spinacia oleracea L.
|
Chenopodiaceae
|
Vegetable
|
24
|
Vicia faba L.
|
Leguminosae
|
Vegetable
|
25
|
Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.
|
Leguminosae
|
Vegetable
|
26
|
Zanthoxylum bungeanum Maxim.
|
Rutaceae
|
Spice
|
27
|
Zea mays L.
|
Gramineae
|
Seed
|
Table 5
Plant species recorded from homegardens for other purposes
No.
|
Scientific name
|
Family
|
Uses
|
1
|
Artemisia argyi Levl. et Van.
|
Compositae
|
Medicinal
|
2
|
Buxus sinica (Rehd. et Wils.) Cheng var. parvifolia M. Cheng
|
Buxaceae
|
Ornamental
|
3
|
Eucommia ulmoides Oliver
|
Eucommiaceae
|
Medicinal
|
4
|
Euonymus japonicus Thunb. var. aurea-marginatus Hort.
|
Celastraceae
|
Ornamental
|
5
|
Gynostemma pentaphyllum (Thunb.) Makino
|
Cucurbitaceae
|
Experimental, Medicinal
|
6
|
Hordeum distichon var. nudum L.
|
Gramineae
|
Seed
|
7
|
Impatiens balsamina L.
|
Balsaminaceae
|
Dye
|
8
|
Mukdenia rossii
|
Saxifragaceae
|
Ornamental
|
9
|
Opuntia stricta (Haw.) Haw. var. dillenii (Ker-Gawl.) Benson
|
Cactaceae
|
Medicinal
|
10
|
Paulownia tomentosa (Thunb.) Steud. var. tsinlingensis (Pai) Gong Tong
|
Scrophulariaceae
|
Shade
|
11
|
Picea crassifolia Kom.
|
Pinaceae
|
Shade
|
12
|
Platycladus orientalis (L.) Franco
|
Cupressaceae
|
Ornamental
|
13
|
Potentilla glabra Lodd.
|
Rosaceae
|
Ornamental
|
14
|
Robinia pseudoacacia L.
|
Leguminosae
|
Shade, Ornamental
|
15
|
Trigonella foenum-graecum L.
|
Leguminosae
|
Dye, Spice
|
According to participatory observation and semi-structure interview and background data analysis, species diversity and composition of Salar people’s homegardens are also influenced by a number of environmental, socioeconomic, different cultural and traditions and determined by a complicated interplay of factors, such as the tastes preference of the family members, local food culture and customs, government agricultural policy and local development projects, and regional market forces. The contribution of cultural and socioeconomic factors in generating and maintaining agro-diversity in homegardens has received little attention, yet human cultures have profound influence on the diversity of the ecosystems they belong to. Selection is possibly the factor that most profoundly influences the evolution of agrobiodiversity, hence its conservation, due to its effects on population structure[21]. Householders’ selection is a dynamic practice which depends on many variables such as the fields’ size, the crop, the market’s demand and may easily change depending on opportunities. Householders frequency mentioned labor shortage, problems with crop pests and diseases and poor trade and markets may reduce and influence crop diversity [22].
Salar people’s homegarden structure
Salar people’s houses are typically oriented to the south which is common in northern China, where climatic conditions favor this arrangement. In the summer, the houses catch a cool wind that comes from the south, while in the winter, houses are protected from a cold wind that comes from the north.
As a small-scale agroecosystem, homegardening of salar community is an indigenous, integrated method of home production that often combines vegetable and fruit gardening with flowers. Salar people liking flowers, due to the climatic factors, many flower species can’t grow in this area. Therefore, almost every household of the Salar people purchase some bonsai as decoration.
Types of HGs and variants of salar are numerous and diversified in Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, however, they can be classified into general categories based on primary production systems, crop composition and structure of homegardens (Fig. 2):
Ornamental focus (A): homegarden with flowers and fruit trees (27%)
Produce focus (B): homegarden with vegetables and fruit trees (12%)
Dual-purpose (C): homegarden with vegetables and flowers (11%)
Multi-purpose (D): compound planting homegarden (51%)
These merely reflect the major production system within a category of homegardens; by definition, they usually include aspects of all the categories mentioned. A garden is a micro-scale landscape, so that the constituent elements can be likened to the landscape forming element, such as landforms, plant materials, structures, hard elements, and water elements [23]. Regarding the horizontal structure, Salar people’s homegarden were generally fenced with brick, Raw soil or cement, and made into fences of different shapes, many of the surveyed homegardens had a space in front of the house that was left bare or covered with grass, often with a few trees planted for shade. Fruit plantations were usually completely surrounding the yard and home, vegetable plots were mainly arranged close to the house. The vertical structure and main species present at different levels of the Salar HGs is show in Table 6.
Table 6
Vertical stratification in Salar people’s homegarden
Stratum
|
Height in meters (m)
|
Homegardens
|
Ground level
|
< 3 m
|
Vegetables, Flowers, starch food plants,
|
Lower level
|
3–10 m
|
Fruit trees, or other shrub such as cloves, Chinese prickly ash
|
Upper lever
|
10–15 m
|
Other trees for building material and fuel wood, walnut trees
|
Table 7
Functions of homegardens and associated practices
Function
|
Practices
|
Representative plants
|
Food supplement (93%)
|
1. Most vegetables are subsidiary food
2. Some plants are used as a seasoning for cooking meat.
|
Raphanus sativus L.
Zanthoxylum bungeanum Maxim.
|
Environmental regulation (55%)
|
1. Plants are planted or allowed to grow in the contours of the land where the house is built, the roots of the plants stabilize the soil.
2. When building the house, the
piece of land is prepared so that
trees are maintained for shade.
|
Picea crassifolia Kom. Robinia pseudoacacia
|
Occasional income (20%)
|
1. Women occasionally sell produce from the home garden.
2. Livestock products.
|
Cerasus pseudocerasus (Lindl.) G. Don
Prunus domestica L.
|
Small-scale experimentation (43%)
|
1. New plants are tested in the home garden.
2. New plants are collected, bought or exchanged.
|
Eriobotrya japonica (Thunb.) Lindl.
|
Reservoirs of agrobiodiversity (35%)
|
1. Seeds are selected and stored in the home garden
|
Zea mays L.
Hordeum distichon var. nudum L.
|
Aesthetics (100%)
|
1. When travelling, plants are brought back home, (because they are different from the plants others have). Certain plants enhance the status of the person taking care of them
|
Buxus sinica (Rehd. et Wils.) Cheng
Celosia cristata L.
|
Functions and ecosystem services of Salar people’s homegarden
Salar HGs are managed and modified ecosystems providing a range of services that directly benefit households but are also an important habitat for maintaining and conserving local biodiversity and source of other regulating and supporting services. The possession of a functional type of HGs are closely related to socio-economic conditions (gender, age, economic activity, education level) of householders and the agro-ecological zone they belong to and cultural backgrounds. By combining HGs management and horticultural cultivation, Salar people have developed an integrated agricultural, horticultural, aesthetics and animal husbandry system in their homegarden which makes an optimal use of the soil production capacity, ensures multiple uses of natural resources, and provides multiple and sustained yields of different types of crops for subsistence and additional commercial use (Table 7). After investigation of 60 household of Salar people, summary the following functions:
Table 8
Ecosystem services provided by homegardens
Category
|
|
Goods and services from HGs
|
Regulating services
|
Maintenance of essential ecological processes and life support systems
|
Maintenance of productive soils
Regulate the temperature
|
Support services
|
Provision of habitant for wild plant and animal species and maintenance of biodiversity
|
Suitable living space for wild plants and animals
Maintenance of landraces
|
Production services
|
Provision of natural resources
|
Provision of green pollution-free food
Provision of fodder and green manure
Provision of medicinal plants
Provision of resources for decoration
|
Culture services
|
Provision of opportunities for cognitive development
|
Enjoyment of aesthetic features
Hobby
Use in folklore, art and design
Connection with spiritual feelings
Heritage value of home gardens and associated traditional ecological knowledge
Place for creating and enhancing social networks
Place for ceremonies and family activities
|
Food supplement. HGs are mostly known for their food production function considered to be their basic function. In Salar region, due to the climate, HGs can only provide food from April to October each year, and provide households with vegetables, fruits, flavors etc..
Occasional income. Salar woman usually sell fruits, Chinese prickly ash, pumpkin and chili paper from their HGs to increase their occasional income.
Small-scale experimentation. Salar HGs are often utilized as testing plots for new crops and species. For instance, some new crop species, some fruit frees such as Diospyros lotus, Prunus domestica, Chaenomeles sinensis, are still collected in other place or bought from market.
Reservoirs of agrobiodiversity. Salar HGs played an important role in biodiversity conservation, especially for conservation of local crop varieties and species germplasm.
Livestock shed. Livestock are an integral part of some homegardens, and their selection is determined by sociocultural, environmental, financial, and religious concerns. These mainly provide nutritional security but also a source of additional income. The ancestors of Salar were nomadic people, and they continue to keep the tradition of animal husbandry until now. Almost every household has cattle and sheep. The pastoralism is very important for Salar people’s livelihood by earning income from milk, eggs, skin and meat of animals.
Aesthetics area. Salar people love flowers in their traditions, they are not only cultivated all kinds of flowers, but even decorated their houses with flowers pattern. Many plants selected by Salar people for cultivation reflect cultural preferences, to enjoyment of homegardens’ aesthetic features, such as ornamental and eating preferences, rather than productive purpose.
Culture service. For Salar People, HGs also plays an important role in cultural festivals and religious activities. Salar people’s marriage, funeral, festivals and religious ceremony must be carried out in their own HGs. The products are used for various ceremonies, especially fruits and meat for festival.
Because of the importance of HGs value for Salar people's everyday life, we focus at advancing the understanding of the value of homegardens ecosystem services. Although, the importance of HGs for ecosystems service distinctly, to our knowledge there has not been any attempt to systematically describe and valuate the ecosystem services provided by HGs. In this work we identify and characterize 16 services: two regulating services, two support services, four production services and 8 culture services (Table 8). The most valued ecosystem service provided by Salar HGs is the provision of green pollution-free food and the cultural service “hobby” is also amongst of the most valued homegarden services. Specifically, respondents felt that homegardens serve as a pleasant distraction and a relaxation space. We combine with reviewed scientific literature on agriculture-related ecosystem services [24] and available documentation on the ecology, economy, and with further services identified from fieldwork observations and from the interviews with local informants, and related Salar areas to draft this table of Salar people’s homegarden ecosystem services. Table 8 was then expanded with further services identified from fieldwork observations and from the interviews with local informants.