3.1 Plants for making wooden bowls and their sustainable management
Through our interviews and fieldworks, we identified nine plant species (eight family and, nine genera) used as raw materials for making wooden bowls in Gyirong Town. All of these species were the dominant local vegetation types, indicating the sufficient availability of raw material resources. The quality of the wooden bowls produced using the different plants varies, with local people showing some particular preference. For example, Betula utilis was most mentioned (RFC = 1) for making wooden bowls because its wood does not crack or discolor, and the more that B. utilis bowls are used, the redder their color becomes. In contrast, bowl made using Rhododendron arboreum (RFC = 0.22) easily deform over time. Because of the hardness of its wood, Quercus semecarpifolia (RFC = 0.22) is relatively difficult to work with, and the resulting bowls easily crack. As well as such differences between species, wooden bowls made from different parts of the same plant can have different properties, which is reflected in their monetary value. For example, a bowl made from wood obtained from a tree trunk costs approximately $10, while a bowl made from burl wood can sell for $200–400. Indeed, burls are considered the best souece of wood for bowl making by local Tibetans as these tend to produce items with the most beautiful patterns (Fig. 2a). Bowls made of burl are called “cha-bo-luo” meaning they can last a lifetime; “cha-bo-luo” bowls are considered the best dowry and betrothal gifts, cherished carefully look after by their recipients. These specific types of bowls are slso one of the most valued blessings passed between parents and their children for a happy life.
Non-timber forest products provide a variety of cultural and economic values for those ethnic groups that depend on forests [15]. However, whether target species for cultural and economicuse can be managed sustainably remains a matter of debate. This includes Juniperus Tibetica (VU), which the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has claasified as a vulnerable species [16]. During our interviews, we learned about the forest management practices of the local people, which follow a general set of collection guidelines for B. utilis, the most-used species in the area. Notably, local people believe that dead trees are the best raw material. For example, an earthquake that occurred on April 25, 2014, destroyed many B. utilis that were subsequently used to make wooden bowls. Harvesting time is also crucial, with the wood collected before the rainy season to preserve the valued patterns in the wood. These practices can be thought of as a sustainable management in Gyirong, much like “thinning” in other managed forests [17]. Furthermore, in recent years, the local government has stipulated that it is forbidden to fell certain tree species, including J. tibetica, and others can only be cut down three days of these year.
Table 1
plants for making wooden bowls
Scientific name
|
Venecular name
|
URs of men
|
URs of women
|
RFC
|
Vocher Number
|
Betula utilis D. Don
|
Da-ba
|
27
|
24
|
1
|
QTB-JL-7
|
Juniperus tibetica Komarov
|
Xiu-bai
|
11
|
16
|
0.48
|
QTB-JL-64
|
Quercus semecarpifolia Smith
|
Bai-lou
|
6
|
7
|
0.22
|
QTB-JL-25
|
Salix trichocarpa C. F. Fang
|
Lang-ma
|
4
|
0
|
0.08
|
QTB-JL-47
|
Pinus wallichiana A. B. Jackson
|
Tang-xin
|
2
|
4
|
0.12
|
QTB-JL-39
|
Rhododendron arboreum Smith
|
Mei-duo
|
4
|
8
|
0.22
|
QTB-JL-30
|
-
|
Long-xin
|
3
|
4
|
0.14
|
-
|
Larix himalaica Cheng et L. K. Fu
|
Jia-xin
|
1
|
0
|
0.02
|
QTB-JL-125
|
Himalayacalamus falconeri (Hook.f. ex Munro) Keng f.
|
Zha-bi-ya
|
1
|
0
|
0.02
|
QTB-JL-118
|
Although long-xin was mentioned by some people, voucher specimen was not collected due to some objective reasons. Since this was mentioned by the locals, we also included it and did not delete it. |
3.2 Plants used for dying wooden bowls and their cultural significance
Traditionally, natural plant pigments have been discovered and used by people all over the world to dye a range of materials various colors, whether for esthetic or cultural meaning, including wishes for a good harvest, health, and wealth, or to produce auspicious images worshiped by local people. For example, the Miao people living in Sanshui, China, dye bamboo slices that are woven into handicrafts icorporating auspicious images, characters, flowers, and animals worshiped [18]. In Tibet, wooden bowls are dyed in yellow and red, having the meanings of good luck and happiness, respectively. In Tibetan Buddhism, yellow represents the flourishing land, and red often represents fire as well as being a symbol of power. Tipically, dried Rheum australe roots and the bark of Berberis xanthophlaea are used by locals in Gyirong to produce yellow dyes. These raw materials are first boiled in water for 30 minutes and then unfinished (rough) wooden bowls are completely submerged in the cooled dye solution for coloring approximaately 30 seconds and, finally, allowed to dry in the sun. Rheum australe and Fallopia denticulata are used as red dyes in the same way (Fig. 2e–f). The srength of the dye solutions depends on the type and color of the wood. For example, some wood (B. utilis) is “white”, requiring a stronger dye solution, while some types of wood are already “dark” in color and require a lighter dye solution. Notably, we made the first observation of F. denticulata being used for producing a dye. While traditional wooden bowl makers still use these dying methods, many others now use industrial dyes. In Gyirong, the yellow color of traditional Tibetan wooden bowl is still achieved using plant-based dyes, surviving as a deeply rooted cultural practice.
Table 2
Plants used for dying wooden bowls
Scientific name
|
Vernacular name
|
Use parts
|
Vocher Number
|
Rheum australe D. Don
|
Qu-zha
|
Rhizome
|
QTB-JL-3
|
Berberis xanthophlaea Ahrendt
|
Giu-lu
|
Bark and root
|
QTB-JL-28
|
Fallopia denticulata (C.C.Huang) Holub |
A-lang-ba-lang
|
Rhizome
|
QTB-JL-33
|
3.3 Plants traditionlly used as varnishes
The term varnish refers to “a liquid that dries into a transparent film when applied to a solid surface” [19]. Wood varnishes not only protect the wood from weathering, abrasion, and environmental humidity fluctuations, but also have a certain decorative aesthetic function [19, 20]. In Gyirong, Impatiens falcifer, I. bicornuta, I. sulcata, and I. scabrida are used by locals to produce natural varnishes or lacquers (Table 3), which is also the first known record of using of this genus of plants in this way. At the beginning of October each year, the local people collect mature Impatiens seeds, dry them, grind them, and coat the pre-stained wooden bowls with the resulting oils. This process needs to be repeated at least three or four times. A similar process is reported to have been used for mor than 7,000 years in Chinese culture [21, 22]. The traditional wooden bowl lacquers used in the Sichuan Province, Yunnan Province, and Tibet Region of China mainly consist of clay and tung oil purchased from the surrounding Lisu people [1]. Although lacquer-containing Toxicodendron acuminatum and T. wallichii are found around the Gyirong Valley, they are not used by the locals [23]. This may be because local people wish to highlight the yellow and red dyes applied to their traditional bowls, and “raw lacquer” has quite a deep color; the natural dyes can be obscured by the color of the raw lacquer, with ancient Chinese lacquer mostly black and vermilion [24]. The unsaturated fatty acids content of I. balsamina seed oil is 70.75%, including 16.50% linoleic acid and 31.47% α-linolenic acid [25]. These substances penetrate into the wood, having a moisturize a preservative effet that highlights natural texture similar to Wood Wax Oil, which is 90% unsaturated fatty acids [26, 27]. Therefore, Impatiens varnish or lacquer is favored over that produced from Toxicodendron by the trditional wooden bowl makers in Gyirong.
Traditional knowledge is often holistic and adaptive, gathered by generations of observers whose lives depend on this information and its use [28]. As an embodiment of the relationship between humans and biota, plant utilization fully reflects and supports the characteristics of culture, ideology and technology that existed at any given time in human history [29]. The process of re-selection and utilization of Impatiens plants by the Tibetans of Gyirong is a good example of this relationship. In the past, Gyirong wooden bowls were mainly produced in Naixia Village and were used by Tibetans in nearby towns and villages. With the development of society and tourism, Gyirong wooden bowls have become well known for their high quality and low price, and their demand is increased rapidly as a consequence. Due to the low yields of Impatiens seeds and the complicated processing procedures, traditional natural lacquer has been gradually replaced by modern industrial varnishes for over the past 30 years. However, commercial varnishes have one serious disadvantage. Although these varnishes can be easily purchased and application is relatively simple, they retain a pungent smell for a long period, which can have some health risks. In Gyirong, attempts are made to remove this smell by soaking the varnished wooden bowls in wine made from highland barley for half an hour,although this does not completely remove the smell. Perhaps most crucially, varnishing wooden bowls with commercial varnishes does not appear to improve sales. In contrast, a wooden bowl cooperative has been recently organized by the local people to promote the use the original Impatiens-based wood varnish. This have been favored by tourists, and sales have increased significantly as a result both in self-opeated and online stores. As such, Impatients species in this area are more than just a traditional natural varnish or lacquer plant, but demonstrate the ability of local local Tibetans to adapt to modern society. Such adaptation relies on locally accumulated traditional [30].
Table 3
Traditional wooden bowl varnishes
Scientific name
|
Vernacular name
|
Use part
|
Vocher Number
|
Impatiens falcifer Hook.f.
|
Po-zhi
|
Seed
|
QTB-JL-15
|
Impatiens bicornuta Wall.
|
Po-zhi
|
Seed
|
QTB-JL-73
|
Impatiens sulcata Wall. |
Po-zhi
|
Seed
|
QTB-JL-62
|
Impatiens scabrida DC. |
Po-zhi
|
Seed
|
QTB-JL-70
|
3.4 Status and trends of Tibetan wooden bowls in Gyirong Valley
In studies exploring the factors that influence traditional knowledge about plants, gender and age are usually considered most [31]. Generally, the gender division of labor in traditional societies partly explains differences in knowledge between men and women [32]. In Gyirong Town, although the making of traditional wooden bowls is the exclusive job of men, no significant age (p = 0.370) or gender (p = 0.536) differences were observed in the levels of knowledge about this as a cultural practice (Table 4). Our ethnobotanical survey results show a total of 122 use reports (59 URs from men and 62 from women) referring to nine plant species. All nine plants were listed by men while, six plants were listed by women. Plants used to obtain dyes and varnish were both mentioned by men and women. From the perspective of the social division of labor, although processing wooden bowls is exclusively undertaken by men (Fig. 2b–d), women are involved in stages of the making process (Fig. 2a, e–h). Given that all our informants had a low level of formal education, their knowledge about plants and their uses derives from working for their parents from an early age. In this way, the collaboration and division of labor among family members in Gyirong has allowed the traditional knowledge of wooden bowl making to be passed on between generations.
The wooden bowl production process is complicated, involving a series of procedures: including material selection, air drying, carving, dying, and varnishing (Fig. 2). According to our interviews and observations, it took several days to select the materials, and the raw materials must be placed for two to three months before they can be used. Rough processig is then required, taking approximately four hours. Finally, dyeing and varnishing takes approximately one week. In addition, according to the local craftsmen, there has be poor demand for ordinary wooden bowls over the last few decades, with generally poor profits as a result. Fewer local people make these items as a result, with many more choosing to seek work elsewhere. In the past, wooden bowls were only processes in Nai village. Then, in 2008, the traditional wooden bowl-making process was selected, under the organization of the Gyirong Government, to be included on the Tibet Autonomous Region Intangible Cultural Heritage List [2]. At the same time, some people in other villages began to learn traditional techniques from their elders, and more began to process and sell wooden bowls. More recently, the Gyirong Town Government has helped farmers and herdsmen register 51 professional cooperatives, including 12 processing and manufacturing cooperatives. This has helped spread traditional knowledge about wooden bowl making from Nai to other villages. In addition, the popularization of tourism and e-commerce has increased demand for these items. Villages with good tourism benefit from the wholesale of wooden bowls from Nai Village and Zha Village, further broadening the sales channels. Currently, craftsmen can earn up to $4,000 each year from selling traditional wooden bowls, which are often made outside of the farming season. This additional income has become a powerful tool for local poverty alleviation .
Multiple challenges such as industrialization and globalization affect the development of handicraft industries worldwide [7, 33]. In the case of wooden bowls, knowledge is passed within family generationss in Gyirong through the traditional division of labor. Under the guidance of the modern social government and the motivation of higher income, this knowledge has been spread from village to village, further enhancing the vitality of this local knowledge. Research on Chinese Sanshui bamboo weaving also confirms the role of local government in facilitating the inheritance and development of handicrafts skills and practices [18]. In addition, the local people in Gyirong resilience to the rapid changes occurring around them, such as the use of four species of Impatiens for producing varnishes.
Table 4
Results of student t-test of local knowledge of different genders and Pearson Correlation of local knowledge of different ages.
|
Student-test
|
Pearson Correlation
|
|
Man
|
Woman
|
Sppknown
|
Age
|
Average
|
2.370
|
2.625
|
2.490
|
49.315
|
Standard deviation
|
1.548
|
1.345
|
1.447
|
15.368
|
r
|
-
|
0.128
|
P-value
|
0.536
|
0.370
|
Sppknown: The number of species known to people of different ages; r: Correlation coefficient.
|