Bacteriological Count and Chlorine Assessment of Water Quality of the Public Swimming Pools in Klang Valley Malaysia

Abstract

Background

Water is essential for life and has been used for various activities such as drinking, bathing, and recreational purposes and is one of the modes of the transmission of the disease.

Objective

This study aims to assess the bacteriological count and chorine level of swimming pools’ water in Lembah Klang, Malaysia.

Methodology:

Seven water samples were collected from outdoor and indoor swimming pools (hotel, apartment, and public swimming pool) in Lembah Klang, Malaysia. Water samples were collected in sterile bottles (30 ml). Physicochemical parameters were determined using a water quality testing kit pH & chlorine apparatuses. The water sample was cultured and incubated. The presence of bacteria was counted by the total bacterial count method.

Result

The mean values of the various chlorine level parameters of the selected water samples investigated for the apartment, hotel, and municipal were 0.56 ± 1.01, 0.77 ± 0.95, and 1.19 ± 0.91. The chlorine level except conductivity values were within the permissible limits of the World Health Organization (WHO) standards 2006 and American National Standard for Water Quality in Public Pools and Spas (ANSI/APSP) 2015. The mean, standard plate count of water samples from the selected apartment, hotel, and municipal’s swimming pools were 28407.14 ± 28469.05, 8192.86 ± 10556.36, and 3257.14 ± 6250.17which above the WHO Guideline limit, thus signifying contamination.

Conclusion

The study recommends improvement in the personal hygiene of swimmers, adequate cleansing of the pools, and enforcement of standards by the government.

1.0 Introduction

From regeneration to regeneration, swimming has been a widespread practice throughout history in the humanities and nations. As the sciences and technology evolved, thoughts about the risks of disease transmission associated with swimming in the pond, ocean, or swimming pool, in recent history. Moreover, different public health scientists unthinkingly assumed that there could be a relation between the units of faecal contamination as well as contamination from bathers and the risk of acquiring certain illnesses during swimming activities; this relation was not effectively demonstrated until the 1950s when research had done by Moore B in article name Sewage contamination of coastal bathing waters in England and Wales.

However, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) has recently reported that there have been numerous epidemics of disease due to using public swimming pools, precisely the existence of the Protozoan Cryptosporidium. This occurred because many public swimming pools had not been correctly cleaned (Brad Kelechava et al., 2015) [1]. They endorsed the swimming pool's pollution in the study area by faecal substances and other firm waste materials. This benefaction has been recognised as preventing some public health risks to users due to the contamination of swimming pool water. Bacterial contamination of the swimming pool water can result in pathogenic bacteria, causing infections to swimmers. Nevertheless, these contaminants can be obtainable in swimming pool water from swimmers, the pool filters, or occasionally from defects in pool engineering (George Osei-Adjei et al., 2014).[2] Notwithstanding, recreational waters may contaminate by direct excretion by the bathers (vomits, urine, etc.), transport on the body, or growth within the filter bed (Hoseinzadeh E et al., 2013) [3].

In many cases, waterborne infectious causing diarrhoea and the most common bacteria with a total of three thousand points reported every year in the United States alone (Yoder et al., 2012a, 2012b)[4,5]. According to the Malaysia Health Ministry, the prevalence in 2013 of waterborne typhoid, cholera, hepatitis A and dysentery were 47.79, 0.73, 0.58, 0.41, and 0.28 per 100,000 of the population correspondingly reported in 2013 (Dr Milton Lum, 2015) [21]. Swimmers have reported infections caused by swallowing the contaminated water by bacteria and fungi in recent years (Brewster et al., 1994; Kiyohara et al., 2006) [6, 7]. The risk of infection and disease linked to the contamination of the swimming pool water, consequently some due to the faecal related by the bather or contaminated source of water or may be due to the direct contamination from the animals (birds, frogs or mouse) (WHO, 2006)[6,7]. Besides, faecal matter contributes to the water when a person has an accidental faecal release (diarrhoea stool) or when individual faecal material on swimmers’ bodies is washed into the pool (CDC, 2001a) [10]. Conversely, some other causes are due to non-faecal human sheddings such as vomiting, skin disease, mucus, or saliva in the swimming pools, give the potential to transmit the microorganisms (pathogens). Moreover, fungi and viruses may also lead to skin infections from infected water. The primary pathogens, primarily bacteria, can also be a shield from the user and transmitted in water (WHO, 2006; Kokebe Yedeme et al., 2017) [8, 11].

2.0 Methodology

2.1 Study design

The study was conducted in Klang Valley, Malaysia, between June and August 2016. Quantitative research with correlation was used with a random sampling method. The research is a cross-sectional study. This study does not have a time dimension. It depends on the differences existing on behalf of change. The following intervention and the sample are selected based on existing differences on behalf of random allocation. The cross-sectional design measure through alternatively a process of change.

2.2 Sample size and study area

A total of 21 water samples were collected (seven samples from municipal, seven representatives from hotels and seven pieces from apartments). The study was conducted in Klang Valley, Malaysia. Mainly the sample was collected at the Apartments, hotels, and public swimming pools around the Klang Valley area. Thus, Klang Valley is an attractive and developing country and the centre of Malaysia. It is the most popular area of living and tourism and is underwritten through faster development than other cities in Malaysia. The size of Klang Valley is 2900 KM and is located in the centre of Selangor State. It is located on the West Coast of Malaysia, with a broader range of flat land than the East Coast of Malaysia, with a population of almost 7.53 million in 2015 (Jabatan Perangkaan Malaysia, 2015) [12]. The temperatures remain constant. The maximums temperature is between 32oC and 33°C and does not exceed more than 38.5°C. Besides, the minimums temperature is between 23.4oC and 24.6°C and has never fallen below 14.4°C. Klang Valley has received a minimum amount of 2,600 mm of rain in a year, and June to July are relatively dry, but mostly it will exceed 131 millimetres per month.

2.3 Physicochemical analysis of the water samples

Chlorine and bromine levels were determined using the Pentair All-in-One 78HR Swimming Pool Water Testing Maintenance kit (Pentair, Minnesota, United States) for the pool or spa. The manufacturer provided the protocol. 

The chlorine/ bromine test vial ware was filled with swimming pool water until the vial line was collected at 40 cm depth from the water's surface. Five drops of solution OTO 1 (provided in the kit) were added, and the cap was replaced and thoroughly mixed.  The colour of the water was compared with the reading of the chlorine standards. 

The temperature was measured at the poolside by using a standard 100^oC thermometer.

2.4 Bacteriological count of the water samples

The water samples were collected 30 cm deep from the surface of the water by using a sterile universal bottle. The model was transported to the lab for bacteria count.  Plate count agar and serial dilution method were used to determine the bacteria's amount. 

The total bacterial count was determined using standard plate count (SPC). The complete and Coliform count were determined using nutrient agar by pour plate technique. The sample was incubated at 37°C for 24 hours for all colony counting (WHO, 2006; APHA, 1998) [8,13]. All microbial analysis was done by following strict aseptic techniques of microbiology procedures. All the data were collected and analysed using SPSS (SPSS, RRID: SCR_002865) and Microsoft Excel 2010 (Microsoft Excel, RRID: SCR_016137). To find the mean and standard deviation of the bacteria.

2.5 Data analysis

The research uses a Pearson correlation coefficient test. The data collection was systematically arranged, and the resulting data was tabulated and entered using a specific program to develop the analysis using Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version 24.0. 

2.6 Ethics Approval and Consent to Participate

This research did not involve any human participation according to ethical approval by the Management & Science University (MSU) research board since it is no humans or animals involved. 

2.7 Human and Animal Rights

No Animals or Humans were used for these studies.

2.8 Conflict of interest (COI)

The paper did not have any conflict of interest. 

3.0 Result And Analysis

3.1 Prevalence of chlorine level and bacteriological status

The frequency standard of the chlorine level of swimming pools in Klang Valley, Malaysia, is presented in Table 3.1.1. The chlorine level for an apartment at 0.56 with a standard deviation of 1.01. The Hotel shows 0.77 with a standard deviation of 0.95 and the municipal at 1.19 with a standard deviation of 0.91. 

Table 3.1.1: Mean of Chorine level.

Table 3.1.2 shows the mean value of the standard plate count for three types of swimming pool water samples. The apartment showed the highest standard plate count at 28407.14±28469.05, followed by the hotel at 8192.86±10556.36 and the Municipal at 3257.14±6250.17, respectively. The significant value of the apartment is 0.050 (<0.05), highly effective compared to the hotel and municipal.

Table 3.1.2:  Mean of standard plate counts. 

3.4 Correlation between standard plate count and chlorine level quality in three different groups of apartment, hotel and municipal swimming pools in Klang Valley, Selangor

Table 3.4.1: Correlation between Chlorine Apartment and Bacteria Apartment

A Pearson's correlation showed weak, negative correlations between Chlorine Apartment and Bacteria Apartment (r = -0.124, N=7, p=0.792(P >0.05).

Correlation value r= -0.124of would be a “week negative correlation.”

Table 3.4.3: Correlation between Chlorine Hotel and Bacteria Hotel

A Pearson's correlation test showed the relationship between Chlorine Hotel and Bacteria Hotel. There was a moderate, negative correlation between Chlorine Hotel and Bacteria Hotel (r = -0.439, N=7, p= 0.325(P>0.05))

Correlation value r= -0.439 would be a “moderate negative correlation.”

Table 3.4.5: Correlation between Chlorine Municipal and Bacteria Municipal

A Pearson's correlation test showed a relationship between Chlorine Municipal and Bacteria Municipal. There was a strong, negative correlation between Chlorine Municipal and Bacteria Municipal (r = -0.625, N=7, p=0.134 (>0.05))

Correlation value r= -0.625 would be a “Strong negative correlation.”

4.0 Discussion

To comply with the WHO and ANSI/ APSP guidelines, swimming facilities must have routine regulations to identify the correct activities to implement in the pool environment. 

Twenty-one samples were taken from apartments, hotels, and municipal swimming pools in Klang Valley, Selangor. The table and graft results for chlorine level and bacteriological status were analysed. 

The chlorine level from the apartment’s swimming pool showed low chlorine levels and a very high count of bacteria. While samples had taken from hotels; the chlorine level is similar to the apartment. The standard plate count for the hotel swimming pool water indicates that about 28 % of the hotel sample has high and 71 % low bacteria counts. For the municipal’s swimming pool water samples showed low chlorine levels and the standard plate count for the municipal’s swimming pool shows low in bacteria, 

Notwithstanding, the standard chlorine level of the swimming pool had been standardised by WHO and ANSI/ APSP at 1.5 up to 4 PPU, and the average plate count should be below 200 CFU/ml. The result indicates that the municipal have good management of the swimming pool compared to hotels and apartment; this shows that the direction of the condo and hotel did not follow the recommended guideline that had been provided accordingly.

Moreover, investigation and observation show that the growth of bacteria is due to a few factors: some of the swimming pools are open. The empty swimming pool has access to outbreak sources example, birds, cats, dogs, frogs, rats, and insects. Some apartments and hotels contain faeces of birds and cats in the swimming pool area. The maintenance or the management of the swimming pool did not perform proper care to clean the pool area from the faeces. Besides, observation in the open swimming pool, there are a lot of birds and frogs taking a shower at the edge of the swimming pool, which increases the source of the bacteria.

The comparison means of chlorine level quality in three different groups of the apartment, hotel, and municipal swimming pool show that the condo is lower at 22% than the hotel and municipal by 34% and 44%, respectively, due to improper maintenance by apartment and hotel management. The chlorine level should be monitored daily to keep the swimming pool water low in photogenic bacteria and fungi. Using a low chlorine concentration will affect the reading of the chlorine level and increase the bacteria's growth. This study, supported by Yoder et al. (2005) [16], said improper maintenance of public and semi-public facilities frequently fails to protect the public against chlorine-sensitive pathogens. This statement is supported by Al Khatib et al. (2003) [17]. They said that an analysis of the free chlorine level for disinfection revealed that all samples contained free chlorine, which is much less than the required level. Chorine is used as a disinfectant in all the swimming pools and must be present continually and in sufficient concentrations to protect against the survival of newly introduced pathogens. Still, the reasons might be using less amount and concentration of chlorine which may be incomparable to the volume of water, presence of high level of organic matter, microbial load, higher temperature (Chlorine quickly evaporates), and remains unavailable. Kokebe Yedeme et al. (2017) [11] mention the physicochemical factors such as chlorine level as one of the critical keys to control to ensure adequate decontamination and avoid damage to the pooled material. If the water pH is alkaline, Chlorine antiseptic enactment decreases, and it will provide the growth of fungal. Generally, the physicochemical parameters of the water strongly influence the disinfection process's efficiency. Factors like pH, the turbidity of the water, the concentration of chlorine, and contact time, affect the efficiency of disinfection with chlorine.

Compare the mean of standard plate count in three different apartment, hotel, and municipal swimming pool show groups. The average plate count of the apartment is the highest at 71% compared with Hotel and municipal by 23% and 8%, respectively. The bacteria in the apartment is high due to contagion from the animal and bather. Also, low chlorine residual sanitisation supported a study by Indabawa et al. (2015) [14], which mentions that the high bacterial count at the other sites before use by bathers and animals could probably come from the contaminated water source or ineffective treatment of the swimming pools. The swimming pool had an increment in bacterial load after use by bathers and animals, and this conforms to the work of the workers who reported that bathers tend to shed bacteria from faecal and non--faecal sources, which increases the organic matter in the pool water, there will also be many bacteria present working on decomposing this matter. Also supported by Prescott et al. (2002) [15] said that it also isolated these species of fungi from public swimming pools in Egypt and Iran. Fusarium knew for ocular infections in humans and animals.

The result from the correlation analysis between standard plate count and chlorine level in three different groups of apartment, hotel and municipal swimming pools show that there is a weak negative correlation between chlorine level in the condo and standard plate count in the apartment with the correlation value of r= -0.124 with a significant deal of p=0.792 which it is not substantial. Moreover, the correlation test also thru between chlorine level hotel and standard plate count hotel, which shows a moderate negative correlation with a value of r =-0.439, with a significant deal of p=0.325 resulting in no considerable value. The test was also completed to chlorine level municipal and standard plate count municipal, showing the correlation value r=-0.625, which is a strong correlation but not significant with a value of p=0.134. Similar conclusions by Rasti et al. (2012) [18] also reported no significant difference between the enduring chloride in contaminated and non-contaminated swimming pools. Moreover, Rabi et al. (2008) [19] also supported a correlation association between swimming pool adulteration and the time of water sample collection. In this result, Maida et al. (2008) [20] claimed that water quality depends on chloride concentration and the number of swimmers in the pool.

References

[1] Brad Kelechava, (2015) Water Quality in Public Pools and Spas, American Public Health Association (APHA). 13 July 2015

[2] Osei-Adjei, G., Sarpong, S. K., Laryea, E., & Tagoe, E. (2014). Bacteriological Quality Assessment of swimming pools in the Osu-Labadi Area, Accra. Journal of Natural Sciences Research, 4(19), 126–129. Retrieved from http://iiste.org/Journals/index.php/JNSR/article/view/15879

[3] Hoseinzadeh E, Mohammady F, Shokouhi R, et al. (2013), Evaluation of biological and physicochemical quality of public swimming pools, Hamadan (Iran). Int J Env Health Eng 2013; 2(1): 21.

[4] Yoder, J.S., Gargano, J.W., Wallace, R.M., Beach, M.J., 2012a. Giardiasis surveillance United States, 2009e2010. MMWR Surveill. Summ. 61 (5), 13e23 

[5] Yoder, J.S., Wallace, R.M., Collier, S.A., Beach, M.J., Hlavsa, M.C., Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), 2012b. Cryptosporidiosis surveillance United States, 2009e2010. MMWR Surveill. Summ. 61 (5), 1e12.

[6] Brewster DH, Brown MI, Robertson D, Houghton GL, Bimson J, Sharp JC.( 1994). An outbreak of Escherichia coli O157 was associated with a children's paddling pool. Epidemiol Infect.; 112(3):441-7.

[7] Kiyohara N, Kobayakawa Y, Lyman H, Osafune T. (2006). Identification of bacterial flora in the water of swimming pools throughout the year. Japan J PhysEduc Hlth Sport Sci. 51(1):1-9

[8] WHO, (2006). Microbial hazards. In: Guidelines for Safe Recreational Water Environments. Swimming Pools and Similar Environments, vol. 2. WHO Press, Geneva, Switzerland, pp. 26–59 (Chapter 3). 

[9] WHO, (2006). Managing water and air quality. In: Guidelines for Safe Recreational Water Environments. Swimming Pools and Similar Environments, vol. 2. WHO Press, Geneva, Switzerland, pp. 80–99 (Chapter 5).

[10] CDC (2001a) Prevalence of parasites in faecal material from chlorinated swimming pools – the United States, 1999. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 50: 410–412

[11] Kokebe Yedeme, Melese Hailu Legese,  Almaz Gonfa and Somson Girma.  (2017). Assessment of Physicochemical and Microbiological Quality of Public. The Open Microbiology Journal, 2017, 11, 98-104

[12] JPM. (2015). Laporan tahunan 2015 Jabatan Perangkaan Malaysia. https://www.dosm.gov.my/v1/uploads/files/4_Portal%20Content/1_About%20us/7_AnnualReport/Laporan_Tahunan_2015_DOSM.pdf

[13] American Public Health Association (APHA). (1985) Standard Methods for the Examination of water and wastewater. 16th edition, Washington, D.C.

[14] Indabawa, I. I., Ali, S., & Mukhtar, M. D. (2015). Assessment of Microbiological and Physico- Chemical Quality of Some Swimming Pools within Kano Metropolis, Kano, Nigeria.

[15]  Harley, J.P. and Prescott, L.M. (2002) Laboratory Exercises in Microbiology. 5th Edition, The McGraw-Hill Companies.

[16] Yoder, J.S., Hlavsa, M.C., Craun, G.F., Hill, V., Roberts, V., Yu, P.A., Hicks, L.A., Alexander, N.T., Calderon, R.L., Roy, S.L., Beach, M.J., 2008. Surveillance for waterborne disease and outbreaks associated with recreational water use and other aquatic facility-associated health events united States, 2005e2006. MMWR Surveill. Summ. 57 

[17] Al-Khatib, I. and  Salah, S. (2003).  Bacteriological and chemical quality of swimming pools water in developing countries: A  case study in the  West  Bank of  Palestine.  International Journal of Environmental Health Research, 13(1): 17-22.   (PDF) Quality Assessment of Selected Public Swimming Pools in Owerri Metropolis, Nigeria. Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/299411514_Quality_Assessment_of_Selected_Public_Swimming_Pools_in_Owerri_Metropolis_Nigeria [accessed Dec 27 2018].

[18] Rasti, S., Assadi, M. A., Iranshahi, L., Saffari, M., Gilasi, H. R., & Pourbabaee, M. (2012). Assess microbial contamination and physicochemical condition of public swimming pools in Kashan, Iran. Jundishapur Journal of Microbiology, 5(3), 450–455. https://doi.org/10.5812/jjm.2478

[19] Rabi, A., Khader, Y., Alkafajei, A., & Aqoulah, A. A. (2008). Sanitary Conditions of Public Swimming Pools in Amman, Jordan Sanitary Conditions of Public Swimming Pools in Amman, Jordan, (October). https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph5030152

[20] Maida, C. M.; Di Benedetto, M. A.; Firenze, A.; Calamusa, G.; Di Pazza, F. and Milici, M. E. (2008). Surveillance of the Sanitary Conditions of a Public Swimming Pools in the City of Palermo (Italy).1g.Sanita Publ .649(5): 281-293. 

[21] Dr Milton Lum,(2015)  The Star Online, Infections and water https://www.thestar.com.my/lifestyle/health/2015/01/18/infections-and-water/#1WbibP1wi0yvgKdA.99