P. falciparum community prevalence and health seeking behaviors in rural Sussundenga District, Mozambique

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-1097255/v2

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P. falciparum community prevalence and health seeking behaviors in rural Sussundenga District, Mozambique

https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-1097255/v2

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Background

Impacts of nationally directed malaria control interventions hinge on understanding malaria transmission and prevention at the community level. The decision to seek care or health seeking behaviors provide valuable insight on knowledge of malaria, access to care, and efficacy of malaria case management. Thus far, few studies have focused on central Mozambique. Our aim was to describe community level P. falciparum prevalence and health seeking behaviors among residents of Sussundenga, Mozambique, a rural village in Manica Province with high malaria incidence reported at the Sussundenga-Sede health center (RHC).

Methods

We conducted a cross-sectional community-based survey from December 2019 – February 2020. We used a random household sampling method, based on enumerated households from satellite imagery. All consenting participants completed a survey about malaria risk, prevention, and health seeking-behaviors, and received a P. falciparum malaria rapid diagnostic test (RDT).

Results

We enrolled 358 individuals from 96 households. The P. falciparum prevalence was 31.6% (95% CI [26.6%-36.5%]). Ninety-three percent of participants reported using the Sussundenga-Sede RHC for healthcare. Sixty-six percent of participants (N = 233) experienced at least one malaria symptom in the past month, with self-reported fever most frequently reported (19.3%). Of these, 176 (76.5%) sought care in a health facility and 174 (79%) received an RDT with 130 (63%) having a positive test. Of those with a positive RDT, 127 (97%) received Coartem®. Following treatment, 123 (97%) participants' symptoms resolved within a median of 3 days (IQR: 3–5) ranging from 2–14 days. In this high transmission setting, a high proportion of participants recognized malaria related symptoms then received a proper diagnostic test and treatment in a health facility.

Conclusions

Future interventions that leverage this health seeking behavior and strengthen health systems for community interventions will improve malaria control and inform the efficacy of potential interventions at this particular international border.

Health seeking behaviors

malaria prevalence

The globally estimated 241 million cases of malaria continues to disproportionately impact Sub-Saharan Africa (1). Mozambique is one of 29 countries that claim 96% of global malaria cases. This high burden country reported 8,921,081 malaria cases and 1,114 deaths in 2018, which represents approximately 4% of cases and deaths globally (2). Recently collaborative malaria control and elimination efforts such as the Mozambique, South Africa, and Eswatini (MOSASWA) initiative in 2015 have demonstrated the utility of collaborative partnerships to address malaria morbidity and mortality (3). In 2018, the World Health Organization (WHO) introduced the High Burden to High Impact initiative which sought innovative country-led and strategic policies to reduce malaria death and disease among eleven high burden countries, including Mozambique (4). MOSASWA and High Burden to High Impact sought to leverage the resources of several countries to control malaria transmission in high burden regions in close proximity to low transmission regions. However, Mozambique has yet to see marked reductions in malaria incidence and prevalence throughout the country (1, 5).

Manica Province, which is located in central Mozambique, is within a region that has a higher malaria risk compared to the western shared border with Zimbabwe and other surrounding Mozambican provinces. However, previous epidemiological studies evaluating malaria control measures have not focused on the central region of Mozambique, particularly Manica province outside of Chimoio City (6, 7). We believe understanding the malaria burden and health seeking behavior patterns in this area will inform future malaria control efforts at the district and provincial levels.

Manica Province had 821,775 malaria cases in 2019 (8). Sussundenga District is one of nine districts in the province. This district contains 14 different rural health centers (RHCs) and has a documented high annual incidence of malaria cases (9). Insecticide treated nets (ITNs) are the main preventive measure that is accessible to most households (9). Prompt diagnosis and treatment with Coartem® at an RHC is the standard of care for uncomplicated malaria illness. There are currently plans to expand the use of community health workers (CHWs) for integrated community case management (iCCM) throughout Mozambique in the coming years (10). However, we currently lack knowledge about the communities’ health seeking behaviors and use of the current RHC based case management system. The primary objective of this study was to describe community-level P. falciparum prevalence and health seeking behaviors in rural Sussundenga village in Manica Province, Mozambique.

Study Area

The survey was conducted in Sussundenga village. Sussundenga village is approximately 42 km from the Provincial capital of Chimoio city in central Mozambique (Fig. 1). Sussundenga village is the district municipality of Sussundenga District and is a rural agrarian community with an approximate population of 19,112 residents and shares a border with Zimbabwe (9). From September to March, Manica Province has high temperatures and increased rainfall which contributes to the reported seasonally high malaria incidence. The main rural health center (RHC) in the village is the Sussundenga-Sede health center, with 14 smaller RHCs located in the district. The study sampled households from this village because of the high incidence, proximity to the Zimbabwe border, and accessibility to several RHCs. The primary malaria prevention intervention in the region at the time of the survey were insecticide treated nets (ITNs) for households distributed through the antenatal care center.

Study Design and Data Collection

A cross-sectional community-based survey was administered from December 2019 to February 2020 in Sussundenga village. This analysis focuses on health seeking behaviors data from a survey which evaluated malaria risk based on sociodemographic, environmental, migration, housing construction, and other risk factors. Satellite imagery was used to enumerate 2,889 households in Sussundenga village (Fig. 2). A random household sampling method selected 125 households for screening and 100 households for enrollment to allow for potential misclassification of household structures and refusals. This was determined from estimated 5–6 total residents per household at the time of survey administration. As a pilot study the sample size was determined to detect differences in specific risk factors between those with and without P. falciparum infection measured by rapid diagnostic test. GPS coordinates were used to locate households for enrollment. Data collectors determined eligibility through a notification visit with the head of the household and assigned each household member a unique identifier.

Data collectors also obtained informed consent for all adult residents and parent/guardian permission for children between 3 months to 13 years old and assent for minors between 13 to 17 years old. Enrollment eligibility criteria was any full-time resident older than 3 months. After the notification visit, data collectors administered the electronic survey and recorded household GPS coordinates on a tablet computer using a REDCap® (Research Electronic Data Capture) mobile application. All participants present at the time of survey administration who were older than 13 years old completed the survey and parents provided responses for children 3 months old to 13 years old.

A study nurse collected a finger prick blood sample and administered a malaria rapid diagnostic test (RDT) [Right Sign Malaria Pf (Biotest, Hangzhou Biotest Biotech Co, China]. All participants with positive results were referred to Sussundenga-Sede RHC for confirmation of diagnosis and treatment. All symptoms reported to data collectors were self-reported based on malaria cases that occurred in the previous month. All data were collected and stored using the REDCap® server hosted at University of Minnesota School of Public Health and was treated confidentially (11, 12). Ethical review and approval for the study was completed by the Institutional Review Board (IRB) at the University of Minnesota [STUDY00007184] and from A Comissão Nacional de Bioética em Saúde (CNBS) at the Ministry of Health of Mozambique [IRB00002657].

Data Analyses

All data analyses were performed using RStudio (version 2021.09.0 + 351) (13). Adults are considered older than 12 years old and children are less than 13 years old based on when they age out of pediatric care and into adult care in the health facility. Children less than 12 years old were not included in the education level and malaria prevalence analysis to understand the association among adults. Community P. falciparum prevalence was determined by RDT results at the time of the survey. Pearson Chi square tests were used to compare the socio-demographic characteristics between malaria positive and negative individuals. Age, sex, employment, education, bed net usage, and regular health center usage were compared between those with positive and negative RDT results.

Health seeking behaviors were described as proportions with 95% confidence intervals to describe the care continuum including care seeking with malaria symptoms, diagnosis, and treatment. The primary health seeking variable was defined as the proportion of individuals that sought care at an RHC among all individuals with self-reported malaria symptoms within the past month. We defined the variable of whether or not the participant received an RDT when they sought care as the proportion of malaria diagnoses by RDT among individuals with self-reported malaria symptoms within the past month. The received treatment variable was defined as the proportion of participants reporting malaria treatment with ACT (Coartem®) among individuals with a positive malaria diagnosis by RDT in the past month.

We defined symptom resolution as malaria positive individuals who received treatment that self-reported symptom resolution. We then calculated the proportion of participants that reported a resolution of their symptoms after completing prescribed treatment. The time to symptom resolution after treatment describes treatment compliance and prompt symptom resolution suggests participants completed the treatment dosage and experienced parasite clearance. The days until symptoms resolved variable is a continuous variable that was self-reported based on an individual’s most recent malaria infection. A violin plot was created to compare the number of days until symptoms resolved comparing all participants, adults, and children.

Socio-demographic characteristics

The study enrolled 96 households with 358 individual household members who were present at the time of the study visit. The age range was 1–80 years and children aged 1–12 years old represented 36% of participants. The malaria prevalence in the study population was 31.6% (95% CI [26.6%-36.5%]). There were statistically significant differences in malaria prevalence by level of education (p < 0.01). The highest malaria prevalence was among adults who received education up to grades 8–10 (26.1% [ 95% CI 20.8%-32.2%]). ITN coverage was moderate with 65% of participants reporting sleeping under an ITN the previous night. There were not differences in ITN use by age. ITNs were protective among those who reported use the previous night, with 26.5% (95% CI [20.1%-32.9%]) prevalence among those who did report usage compared to 41.0% (95% CI [ 32.3%-50.3%]) prevalence among those who did not report ITN use the previous night (p < 0.01). There were no gender differences in malaria prevalence. There were not significant differences in malaria prevalence by occupation, although farmers had the highest malaria prevalence compared to other occupations. Ninety-three percent (93%) of participants reported using the Sussundenga-Sede RHC for their last episode of malaria symptoms.

Table 1

Sociodemographic characteristics among malaria positive and negative
	Malaria negative	Malaria positive
	%(N)	%(N)	95% CI
Age			P < .001
< 5 years	9.8(23)	17.9(19)	(10.6-25.23)
5–10 years	14.1(33)	26.4(28)	(18.0-34.8)
10–15 years	12.0(28)	18.9(20)	(11.4–26.3)
16–20 years	18.4(43)	15.1(16)	(8.28–21.9)
20–30 years	20.5(48)	9.4(10)	(3.87-15)
> 30 years	25.2(59)	12.3(13)	(6.02–18.5)
Sex			P = .84
Male	43.2(99)	44.3(47)
Female	56.8(130)	55.7(59)
Employment			P = .39
Farmer	56.7(38)	81(17)
Miner	1.5(1)	(0)
Health worker	1.5(1)	(0)
Teacher	22.4(15)	4.8(1)
Coroner	1.5(1)	0(0)
Business Owner	16.4(11)	14.2(3)
Education			P < .01
Grades 1–5	7.5(8)	6(14)	(3.00-9.18)
Grades 6–7	7.5(8)	12.8(30)	(8.69–17.4)
Grades 8–10	16(17)	26.1(61)	(20.8–32.2)
Grades 11–12	8.5(9)	17.1(40)	(12.5–22.3)
University	0(0)	2.6(2)	(0-2.07)
N/A	60.5(64)	35.4(83)	(29.9–42.3)
Bed Net Usage			P < .01
No	30.9(72)	46.3(50)	(36.9–55.7)
Yes	69.1(161)	53.7(58)	(44.3–63.1)
Regular Health Center			P = .33
Sussundenga-Sede	91.9(215)	97.3(105)
Munhinga	1.3(3)	0.9(1)
Dombe	0(0)	0.9(1)
Muôha	0.4(1)	0(0)
Rotanda	0.4(1)	0(0)
Other	6(14)	0.9(1)

Health seeking characteristics and timeline

Sixty-six percent (66%) of participants (N = 233) experienced at least one malaria related symptom in the past month, with self-reported fever most frequently reported symptom (19.3%). Of the participants that reported symptoms, 75.1% (95% CI [70.0%-80.9%]) sought care at a health and 62.2% (95% CI [56.2%-68.8%]) received an RDT. Among all participants tested with an RDT, 74.0% (95% CI [66.8%-80.4%]) were malaria positive. Of the RDT positive participants, 96.2% (95% CI [90.1%-98.8%]) received Coartem®, the standard of care for uncomplicated malaria in Mozambique, and 97.1% (95% CI [91.0%-99.2%]) of participants treated with Coartem® had all symptoms resolved after completing the treatment. Of the four participants that did not receive Coartem®, one participant experienced severe malaria and received quinine, and the remaining participants did not receive the standard of care.

Three participants (2.9%), which were school-aged children, reported unresolved symptoms after receiving the standard of care at the Sussundenga-Sede RHC (diagnosis with an RDT and treatment with Coartem®), and one individual continued to be malaria positive at the time of the survey. Four (3.3%) participants had a malaria related hospitalization after self-reported symptoms within the last month. Two of the individuals with severe disease requiring hospitalization were adults older than 40 years and the other two individuals were children. All of the malaria related hospitalizations sought care, received treatment other than standard of care, and required additional treatment. Three of the four hospitalized individuals had their symptoms resolve.

Efficacy and Access to Care

Median time until reported symptoms resolved was 3 days (IQR: 3–5) and ranged from 2–14 days. Figure 4 shows the distribution of days until reported symptoms resolved among all participants, children, and adults. There were no significant differences in median days until symptoms resolved between children and adults. Nearly all (97.7%) participants preferred the Sussundenga-Sede RHC for care, the majority reported this preference because it was close to their home (94.8%).

This research estimated the community malaria prevalence to be 31.6% (95% CI [26.6%-36.5]). Findings from this study indicate a high degree of treatment seeking behaviors among children and adults, specifically at the Sussundenga-Sede rural health center. The majority of individuals with symptoms sought treatment, received an RDT, and obtained standard treatment (Coartem®). Sussundenga residents who received treatment were likely to resolve their symptoms a short time after seeking treatment. Cassey et al described the increased health seeking capacity of rural households in Manica province in comparison to Maputo city (13). The high level of health seeking behaviors could be explained by the close proximity of the largest rural health center in the village, as several studies have demonstrated the association of shorter traveling distance and utilization of malaria healthcare (13–15).

The 2018 Mozambique Malaria Indicator Survey similarly reported a high malaria prevalence in Manica province among children under five (48%), the third highest in Mozambique (9). In Sussundenga village the malaria prevalence was higher among children and adults in contrast to the effective management of malaria cases among households in our study. Expansion of the thousands of community health workers (CHWs) within the national integrated community case management (iCCM) strategy could increase coverage and access to treatment (9, 15). Our study demonstrated persistent health seeking behaviors among households suggesting a high degree of trust with the publicly run healthcare system. This suggests that an intervention like utilizing CHWs could be effective, as CHWs require community trust to facilitate their uptake in communities and provide treatment for rural populations (16). Districts in Southern Mozambique involved in elimination programs receive monthly electronic reports about malaria cases and other clinical metrics from District health facilities and CHWs to strengthen their epidemiological surveillance system (3, 6). Additional resources for CHWs to delivery ITNs and treat asymptomatic malaria cases could reduce transmission in high burden settings like Sussundenga district (17, 18).

There were several limitations to this study, the first being the cross-sectional design which hinders observing the potential for changing health seeking behaviors over time. Our study relied on self-reported metrics and lacked information directly from rural health centers. Additional understanding of treatment compliance information and direct information from healthcare professionals at the RHC about patient treatment compliance, available resources, and other quality care metrics could further explain our findings (17). Yet, with self-reported responses there is the potential that recall bias could have impacted the accuracy of responses about information surrounding previous malaria symptoms and care.

Prior studies in Manica province determined rural regions have increased prevalence in comparison to urban areas (9), but have not yet quantified the community prevalence in the majority of these rural regions. Few studies have determined the community prevalence of regions in Sussundenga district, especially Sussundenga village. Our study found households promptly sought care to treat their malaria symptoms, which suggests that the RHCs and individual households are strengths to incorporate into future studies and interventions. Efforts to understand drivers of community prevalence in well-resourced, high burden areas could inform innovative community driven malaria prevention and vector control measures.

In this high transmission setting, a majority of participants recognized malaria related symptoms and received a proper diagnostic test and treatment in a health facility. Despite the uptake of treatment to resolve symptoms and utilization of ITNs, the high community prevalence does not reflect the high degree of health seeking behavior. This suggests additional prevention methods like APEs are necessary to address the malaria burden in the district. Future interventions that leverage health seeking behavior and strengthen health systems for community interventions could improve malaria control.

CHW Community Health Workers

iCCM Integrated community case management

Ethical Approval and consent to participate

The ethical review and approval for the study was completed by the Institutional Review Board (IRB) at the University of Minnesota [STUDY00007184] and from A Comissão Nacional de Bioética em Saúde (CNBS) at the Ministry of Health of Mozambique [IRB00002657].

Consent for Publication

Not applicable

Availability of data and materials

All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this published article.

Competing Interests

The authors declare that they have no competing interests

Funding

This study was funded through a SEED grant from the University of Minnesota Center for Global Health and Social Responsibility (CGHSR).

Authors Contributions

D.E and K.S. contributed to the study design, project implementation, analysis of results, and writing of the manuscript.

A.B. contributed to project implementation and data collection.

A.N. contributed to project implementation and sample collection as the study nurse.

J.F. contributed to the study design and project implementation.

Acknowledgements

We would like to acknowledge the study participants and staff in Mozambique as well as our funding sources.

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No competing interests reported.

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You are reading this latest preprint version

P. falciparum community prevalence and health seeking behaviors in rural Sussundenga District, Mozambique

Status:

Version 2

Abstract

Background

Methods

Results

Conclusions

Figures

Background

Methods

Study Area

Study Design and Data Collection

Data Analyses

Results

Socio-demographic characteristics

Health seeking characteristics and timeline

Efficacy and Access to Care

Discussion

Conclusion

Abbreviations

Declarations

References

Additional Declarations

Status:

Version 2