Used ritual plants and their categorization
Plant names and unnamed plants
In total, 64 taxa were used by interviewees for religious purposes. We recorded 58 plant taxa belonging to 36 families in Roztochya and 26 plant taxa belonging to 22 families in Bukovina that were used in ten religious celebrations (Table 3). We documented 118 DUR of plants in Bukovina and 238 DUR of plants in Roztochya. Our data show that wild plants were used more than cultivated species in rituals; however, the situation was not the same in the two regions. In both areas, locals used two wild taxa more than cultivated ones.
Table 3. Use of plants for religious rituals in Ukrainian case study areas
Taxa/
Voucher specimen
|
Local name
|
Wild/
Cultivated/
Semi-cultivated
|
Plant part(s) used
|
Use
|
Holiday
|
Frequency of use in Bukovina,
BN=31
|
Frequency of use in Roztochya,
RN=16
|
Acer spp.
(Sapindaceae)
SF019
|
ясен, клен/ yasen, klen
|
W
|
Fresh branches
|
Decoration of entry doors, garages, gates and barns
|
Pentecost
|
4
|
1
|
W
|
Whole young tree
|
Decoration of yards
|
Pentecost
|
|
Achillea millefolium L. (Asteraceae)
SF020
|
деревій/ derevij
|
W
|
Aerial parts
|
Bouquets
|
Pentecost
St. John’s Day
|
1
|
1
|
Acorus calamus L.
(Acoraceae)
|
шавар, май/shavar, maj
|
W
|
Aerial parts
|
Decoration of yards and roads
|
Pentecost
|
|
4
|
Alchemilla vulgaris aggr.
(Rosaceae)
|
приворотень/ pryvoroten
|
W
|
Leaves
|
Bouquets
|
Pentecost
|
|
1
|
Allium sativum L.
(Amaryllidaceae)
SF021, SF061
|
часник, чеснок/ chasnyk, chesnok
|
C
|
Aerial parts and tubers
|
Basket decoration
|
Easter
|
9
|
|
|
Bouquets
|
Feast of the Transfiguration
|
|
13
|
Anemone nemorosa L. (Ranunculaceae)
|
анемона біла/ anemona bila
|
W
|
Aerial parts
|
Bouquets
|
Palm Sunday
|
|
1
|
Armoracia rusticana P.Gaertn., B.Mey. & Scherb.
SF008
|
Хрін, хрен, хреню
hrin, hren, hrenyu
|
SC
|
Roots
|
Basket decoration
|
Easter
|
19
|
13
|
Artemisia abaensis Y.R.Ling & S.Y.Zhao
(Asteraceae)
SF227
|
полин, полинь, полин гіркий, полин трава/ polyn, polyn`, polyn girkyj, polyn trava
|
W
|
Aerial parts
|
Bouquets
|
Feast of the Transfiguration, Makoviya
|
|
2
|
Asarum europaeum L. (Aristolochiaceae)
SF200
|
копитняк/ kopytnyak
|
W
|
Leaves
|
Wreaths
|
Corpus Christi
|
|
5
|
Beta vulgaris L.
Amaranthaceae
|
буряк / buryak
|
С
|
Roots
|
Basket decoration
|
Easter
|
1
|
|
Betula spp.
(Betulaceae)
NB049
|
береза/ bereza
|
W
|
Fresh branches
|
Decoration of entry doors, garages and barns
|
Pentecost
|
5
|
3
|
Whole young tree
|
Decoration of yards
|
Pentecost
|
|
Buxus sempervirens L. (Buxaceae)
SF023
|
буршпан, гуршпан/ burshpan, gurshpan
|
C
|
Branches
|
Bouquets, basket decoration and candle decoration
|
Easter, Palm Sunday
|
|
7
|
Campanula spp.
(Campanulaceae)_
|
дзвоники/ dzvonyky
|
W
|
Aerial parts
|
Bouquets
|
Pentecost,
Feast of the Transfiguration
|
1
|
2
|
Centaurea spp.
(Asteraceae)
|
васильки / vasyl`ky
|
W
|
Aerial parts
|
Bouquets
|
Feast of the Transfiguration
|
1
|
|
Cyanus segetum Hill
(Asteraceae)
|
волошка / voloshka
|
W
|
Aerial parts
|
Bouquets
|
Pentecost
|
|
1
|
Dianthus barbatus L. (Caryophyllaceae)
|
гвоздика городня / gvozdyka gorodnya
|
C
|
Aerial parts
|
Wreaths
|
Corpus Christi
|
|
1
|
Dianthus spp.
(Caryophyllaceae)
|
гвоздика / gvozdyka
|
C
|
Aerial parts
|
Bouquets
|
Pentecost
|
|
3
|
Dryopteris filix-mas (L.) Schott
(Dryopteridaceae)
SF036
|
папороть / paporot`
|
W
|
Aerial parts
|
Bouquets
|
Pentecost
|
|
1
|
Fraxinus
excelsior L.
(Oleaceae)
SF018
|
ясінь /yasin’
|
W
|
Aerial parts
|
Branches decoration of yards and homes
|
Pentecost
|
2
|
|
Fragaria × ananassa (Duchesne ex Weston) Duchesne ex Rozier (Rosaceae)
SF037
|
полуниця / polunycya
|
C
|
Aerial parts and fruits
|
Wreaths
|
Corpus Christi
|
|
2
|
Fragaria vesca L.
(Rosaceae)
SF038
|
суниця/ sunycya
|
W
|
Aerial parts and fruits
|
Wreaths
|
Corpus Christi
|
|
4
|
Hedera helix L. (Araliaceae)
SF039
|
плющ / plyushh
|
W
|
Aerial parts
|
Wreaths
|
Corpus Christi
|
|
1
|
Juglans regia L.
(Juglandaceae)
SF006
|
горіх / gorih
|
C
|
Fruits
|
Table decorations
|
Christmas
|
3
|
1
|
Hypericum perforatum L.
(Hypericaceae)
SF024
|
звіробій / zvirobij
|
W
|
Aerial parts
|
Bouquets
|
Saint John’s Day
|
4
|
|
Iris spp.
(Iridaceae)
|
півники дикі/ pivnyky dyki
|
W
|
Aerial parts
|
Bouquets
|
Pentecost
|
|
1
|
Leucanthemum spp.
(Asteraceae)
SF064
|
ромашка / romashka
|
W
|
Aerial parts
|
Bouquets
|
Pentecost (R)
Feast of the Transfiguration (B)
|
1
|
4
|
Malus domestica Borkh.
(Rosaceae)
SF040
|
яблука / yabluka
|
C
|
Fruits
|
Basket filling, bouquets
|
Feast of the Transfiguration (B,R)
|
10
|
12
|
Matricaria chamomilla L. (Asteraceae)
SF041
|
румянок / rumyanok
|
W
|
Aerial parts
|
Wreaths
Bouquets
|
Corpus Christi (R)
St. John’s Day
|
2
|
1
|
Mentha spp.
(Lamiaceae)
SF042
|
мята / myata
|
C
|
Aerial parts
|
Bouquets
|
Pentecost
|
|
4
|
Myrtus communis L.
(Myrtaceae)
|
мірта/ mirta
|
C
|
Small branches
|
Basket decoration
|
Easter
|
|
1
|
Onopordum acanthium?
Cirsium spp.
|
будак / budak,
страхополох / strahopoloh,
чортополох /
chortopoloh
|
W
|
Aerial parts
|
Bouquets
|
Feast of the Transfiguration
|
1
|
3
|
Paeonia spp.
(Peoniaceae)
SF063
|
півонія/ pivoniya
|
C
|
Aerial parts
|
Bouquets
|
Pentecost
|
|
2
|
Papaver spp. incl. Papaver rhoeas L., Papaver somniferum L.
(Papaveraceae)
SF050
|
мак / mak
|
W, C
|
Seedpods
|
Bouquets,
basket filling
|
Feast of the Transfiguration (R,B)
Easter (B)
|
11
|
14
|
Persicaria bistorta (L.) Samp. (Polygonaceae)
|
ракові шийки / rakovi shyjky
|
W
|
Aerial parts
|
Wreaths
|
Corpus Christi
|
|
1
|
Picea abies L.
(Abiaceae)
SF043
|
ялинка / yalynka
|
W
|
Whole young tree, branches
|
Home decoration
|
Christmas
|
1
|
1
|
Polygonatum spp.
(Asparagaceae)
|
купина / kupyna
|
W
|
Aerial parts
|
Wreaths
|
Corpus Christi
|
|
1
|
Prunus cerasifera L.
(Rosaceae)
SF013
|
алича / alycha
|
C
|
Fruits
|
Basket filling
|
Feast of the Transfiguration
|
1
|
1
|
Prunus avium (L.) L. (Rosaceae)
SF045
|
черешня / chereshnya
|
C
|
Fruits
|
Basket filling
|
Feast of the Transfiguration
|
|
1
|
Prunus cerasus L.
(Rosaceae)
NB198
|
вишня / vyshnya
|
C
|
Fruits
|
Basket filling
|
Feast of the Transfiguration
|
1
|
3
|
Prunus domestica L.
(Rosaceae)
|
сливки/ slyvky,
сливи / slyvy
|
C
|
Fruits
|
Basket filling
|
Feast of the Transfiguration
|
1
|
9
|
Pyrus communis L.
(Rosaceae)
SF017
|
грушки / grushky
|
C
|
Fruits
|
Basket filling
|
Feast of the Transfiguration
|
1
|
10
|
Rosa spp. incl. Rosa rugosa L.
(Rosaceae)
|
рожа /rozha
|
SC
|
Aerial parts
|
Wreaths
|
Corpus Christi
|
|
5
|
Rubus ideaus L.
(Rosaceae)
SF051
|
малина / malyna
|
C
|
Fruits
|
Basket filling
|
Feast of Transfiguration
|
|
2
|
Salix spp.
(Salicaceae)
SF052,
SF062
|
верба, verba,
баська, bas`ka,
лоза, loza,
шутка, shutka,
бичка, bychka
|
W
|
Young branches
|
Bouquets, branches
|
Palm Sunday
|
22
|
14
|
Sambucus nigra L.
(Adoxaceae)
|
|
хобза/
hobza
|
W
|
Young branches
|
Decoration of yards
|
Pentecost
|
1
|
|
Scilla bifolia L. (Asparagaceae)
|
анемона голуба, anemona goluba, проліска / proliska
|
W
|
Aerial parts
|
Bouquets
|
Palm Sunday
|
|
1
|
Secale cereale L.
(Poaceae)
|
жито / zhyto
|
C
|
Spikes
|
Bouquets
|
Christmas
|
1
|
1
|
Sedum acre L.
(Crassulaceae)
|
очиток /ochytok, розкідник / rozkidnyk
|
W
|
Aerial parts
|
Wreaths
|
Corpus Christi
|
|
7
|
Senecio vulgaris L.
(Asteraceae)
|
жовтозілля / zhovtozillya
|
W
|
Aerial parts
|
Wreaths
|
Corpus Christi
|
|
1
|
Solanum lycopersicum L. (Solanaceae)
|
помідори, томати / pomidory, tomaty
|
C
|
Fruits
|
Basket filling
|
Feast of the Transfiguration (L)
|
1
|
2
|
Symphytum officinale L.
(Boraginaceae)
NB190
|
живокість / zhyvokist`
|
W
|
Aerial parts
|
Wreaths
|
Corpus Christi
|
|
1
|
Tagetes spp.
(Asteraceae)
|
чорнобривці / chornobryvci
|
C
|
Aerial parts
|
Bouquets
|
Feast of the Transfiguration
|
|
2
|
Quercus spp. (Fagaceae)
SF063
|
дуб/ dub
|
W
|
Fresh branches
|
Decoration of yards
|
Pentecost
|
|
1
|
Thymus spp.
(Lamiaceae)
NB186
|
чебрець пахучий/ chebrecz` paxuchyj
|
W
|
Aerial parts
|
Wreaths
|
Corpus Christi,
St. John’s Day
|
1
|
1
|
Tilia spp.
(Malvaceae)
SF053
|
липа / lypa
|
W
|
Fresh branches
|
Decoration of entry doors, garages and barns
|
Pentecost
|
2
|
5
|
Tilia spp.
(Malvaceae)
SF053
Triticum aestivum L.
(Poaceae)
|
липа / lypa
пшениця/ pshenycya
|
W
C
|
Whole young tree
|
Decoration of yards
|
Pentecost
|
1
|
1
|
Spikes
|
Bouquets
|
|
|
|
Triticum aestivum L.
(Poaceae)
Vaccinium myrtillus L. (Ericaceae)
SF049
|
пшениця/ pshenycya
чорниця/ chornycya
|
C
W
|
Spikes
Aerial parts with berries
|
Bouquets
Wreaths
|
Makoveya
|
|
12
|
Corpus Christi
|
|
2
|
Vinca minor L.
(Apocynaceae)
SF010
|
барвінок / barvinok
|
W
|
Aerial parts
|
Wreaths
|
Corpus Christi
|
|
10
|
Vitis vinifera L.
(Vitaceae)
SF001
|
виноград/ vynograd
|
C
|
Fruits
|
Basket filling
|
Feast of the Transfiguration
|
5
|
5
|
Poaceae
SF060
|
злаки/ zlaky
|
C
|
Spikes
|
Bouquets, ‘Didukh’
|
Christmas (B,R)
|
2
|
4
|
Poaceae
SF060
Hay*
|
злаки/ zlaky
сіно / sino
|
C
W
|
Spikes
Aerial parts
|
Bouquets, ‘Didukh’
Table decorations
|
Makoveya (B,R)
|
|
4
8
|
Christmas (B,R)
|
3
|
Herbs*
|
зілля / zillya
|
W
|
Aerial parts
|
Bouquets
|
Pentecost (R)
St. John’s Day (B)
|
8
|
5
|
*Hay and Herbs are named for bouquets and table decorations in general, meaning dried or fresh varieties of wild plants, which interviewees did not want to explain or there was no specific need to explain in the opinion of locals (e.g. “We collect all beautiful herbs.” or “At the meadow you collect all that you like.”). BN- Bukovina number of interviews, RN Roztochya number of interviews, B-Bukovina, R- Roztochya
More than 50% of respondents in Roztochya also mentioned hay as a table decoration for Christmas dinner. Another 30% in Roztochya and 23% in Bukovina only named green herbs for blessing ceremonies, not wanting to discuss further the specific taxa used. The respondents mentioned general bouquets without specifying any names, simply saying “herbs,” “any herbs,” and “just beautiful green herbs.” Some respondents highlighted that they should be “medicinal herbs.”
Salix spp. was the most used taxon, being named by 67.8% of Hutsuls and 81.25% of interviewees in Roztochya. In Roztochya, Armoracia rusticana (75%), Allium sativum (62%), Papaver spp. (75%), Triticum aestivum (68%), Malus domestica (75%), and Pyrus spp. (60%) were named by a majority of interviewees. Vinca minor was named by 50% of interviewees in Roztochya, and also shown by the historical data to be the most used taxa in Western Ukraine (17). Sedum acre and Prunus domestica were used by 37% and 56% of interviewees, respectively. One third of the interviewees in Roztochya named Vitis vinifera, Asarum europaeum, Allium cepa, Tilia spp., and Rosa spp., including Rosa rugosa, as used in various celebrations. Twenty-five percent of interviewees used Dianthus spp., Mentha spp., Leucanthemum spp., Fragaria vesca, and Acorus calamus.
Hutsul interviewees named the following taxa: Armoracia rusticana (62%), Papaver spp. (36%), Malus domestica (35%), Allium sativum (29%), Vitis vinifera (16%), Betula spp. (16%), and Hypericum perforatum and Acer spp. (more than 13%).
Comparing the use of plants in rituals and celebrations, 22 taxa were used in both study areas (Figure 8).
In addition to Salix spp., the most used taxa common to both communities were Armoracia rusticana, Papaver spp., Malus domestica, Allium sativum, Vitis vinifera, Betula spp., indicating the dominance of cultivated taxa. In addition to a comparison of all data, we compared only those taxa that were named by more than 10% of interviewees in order to harmonize the data (Figure 9).
We recorded 32 wild plant taxa, 2 semi-cultivated plant taxa and 24 cultivated plant taxa used in the two Ukrainian study areas (Figure 10).
The Jaccard similarity index for the use of plants for ritual purposes was 34.38, which indicates that the uses are quite different between the two regional groups.
Festivals and the use of plants in the ritual calendar
On the basis of the interviews, we recorded 7 holidays that incorporated plants used in rituals; these were mainly Christian holidays, but some celebrations have pagan roots (e.g. Kupala).
In having the same calendar, but not having the same rituals described by the official church, there were two main differences in the celebrations named by interviewees: in Roztochya bouquets of various herbs were blessed on Pentecost (May-June) while in Bukovina bouquets were blessed on St. John’s Day (July 7th); and wreaths were blessed on Corpus Christi (June) in Roztochya whereas in Bukovina there was no such practice.
Comparison of our results with the historical data from Bukovina (13) revealed the disappearance of the celebration of two holidays with plants incorporated into their rituals, including the celebration of St. George’s Day with the burning of herbs and the decoration of gates with grass and herbs to protect against witches. The Fischer data showed that in the Roztochya region locals used plant bouquets for blessing on the Assumption of Mary (August 28th). While such a practice is still widespread in Poland (7), a single interviewee from Roztochya mentioned the blessing of bouquets on Assumption Day in the Ivano-Frankivsk region of Ukraine.
Christmas – Різдво – [Rizdvo] – 7th of January, celebrating the birth of Jesus (Orthodox and Greek Catholic)
Historically, for the celebration of Christmas, Christmas trees were decorated or bouquets designed and arranged. The ‘diduh’ was a bouquet of wheat which was supposed to be harvested in your own field in August and kept until Christmas. Nowadays, the respondents buy ‘diduh’ at the market, or they have started to abandon this tradition. The historical data mentions the use of ‘diduh’ as a symbol of wealth and a good harvest that has pre-Christian roots (14,27,36).
In both study areas, the dining table for the Holy Supper (traditional Lenten meal on Christmas Eve) is decorated with dried hay, then garlic gloves, walnuts, and poppy seeds, and then a white tablecloth. “We cook 12 dishes for Christmas Eve, and we decorate the table with hay,” explained a retired Hutsul woman. The Christmas tree was rarely mentioned (only one interviewee in each region named it).
Palm Sunday – Willow Sunday – Вербна Неділя, Бичкова Неділя [Verbna Nedilia, Bychkova Nedilia] – one week before Easter, celebrating when Jesus entered Jerusalem
Salix spp. branches were used equally in both areas as the main taxon for Palm or Willow Sunday; names that derive from the use of Salix spp. which is referred to as “Вербна неділя” [Verbna nedilia] in Roztochya and “Бичкова неділя” [Bychkova nedilia] in the Hutsul dialect in Bukovina. In some churches, the priest or the priest’s assistant was responsible for harvesting a large amount of Salix spp. branches for the people that would come to church, and each would get a branch of Salix; this custom was widespread among the Bukovinian interviewees. “We take a willow branch and go to Romania to have it blessed,” explained a Hutsul woman born in 1969, as the nearest church was across the border in Romania. Salix spp. decorated with ribbon was only popular among Hutsuls – “They bless willow in church, we get it there, the priest gives it to everyone,” explained a female Hutsul interviewee born in 1942, while in Roztochya a variety of dried herbs were used. Some interviewees in Roztochya named Buxus sempervirens as a decoration for Salix spp. bouquets, as well as spring forest flowers, e.g. Anemone nemorosa and Primula veris. In our case studies, the saying “Not me, but the willow tree, is beating you because in one week Easter is coming,” can be explained by the fact that the willow protects against evil and aids in “beating out the devil.” The willow tree has a double meaning in Ukrainian folk beliefs with evil being present in old trees and providing protection against evil when the tree is young (11). According to Hutsul folk beliefs, when Jesus was met by children, they welcomed Him with willow branches and for that reason this custom was kept, as documented by Kaindl (13). The historical data confirmed the use of “bychka” [Salix spp.] for blessing on Willow Sunday in Bukovina as early as 120 years ago (13). Surprisingly, the Fischer dataset has no record of Salix spp.
Easter – Паска, Великдень – [Paska, Velykden] – the time of celebration changes, first Sunday following the first new moon after the spring equinox, celebrating the resurrection of Jesus (April-May)
An essential practice on Easter, which was mentioned in both communities, was to have priests bless baskets containing different foods: meat, a special Easter bread called Paska [Паска], painted eggs, cheese and butter, sausages, and smoked meat. Hutsul interviewees explained that it is “obligatory” to have their food blessed on Easter. They decorated baskets with young garlic leaves and horseradish roots with young green aerial parts. In Roztochya, baskets for Easter were decorated with Buxus sempervirens as well as all “spring flowers”. The aerial parts of garlic were named as obligatory in Bukovina, but not in Roztochya. Horseradish roots were named in both study areas as an important component in Easter celebrations both as a ritual food (beetroot salad with horseradish) and for ritual decorations. It was explained that blessed horseradish was used with eggs and in seasoning meat. The historical data shows the blessing of food for Easter in both areas, naming colored eggs called “писанки” or “pysanky” as obligatory. A female Hutsul interviewee, born in 1969, highlighted that “Here people don’t paint pysanka anymore; only elders know how to do it; when they all pass away, no one will know this practice.”
The historical data demonstrate rather strong resilience of the food blessing practice on Easter by Hutsuls (13,14) and in the Lviv region (27), with Armoracia rusticana as one of the requisite products for blessing throughout the 20th century. Recent ethnographical studies in the Chernivci region also reveal the use of Armoracia rusticana and Allium sativum for the Easter blessing (56).
Pentecost – Green Sunday –Трійця - Зелені свята [Triitsia-Zeleni sviata] – 50th day after Easter, commemorating the descent of the Holy Spirit upon the Apostles (May- June)
The local name of Pentecost is “Zeleni Svyata” [зелені свята] or Green Holiday, because everything is so green and beautiful (23). According to our field data, in both regions, the tradition of decorating houses with young branches on Pentecost has never been interrupted. During the lifetime of our interviewees, in both Roztochya and Bukovina, houses, stables, and gates were still decorated with branches or the whole young tree of Betula spp., Tilia spp., and Acer spp. (Figure 7). Bouquets of different forest plants were blessed during this feast. Yards and churches were often decorated with young Betula spp. trees (Figure 13).
Kaindl(13) mentioned the decoration of yards and churches in Bukovina. The historical data reveal the decoration of churches, yards, and houses with tree branches in both areas (23,57). Voropai (26) and Kylymnyk(27) explained that Pentecostal blessing of herbs has pagan roots. The name of the holiday in Ukrainian, Green Holiday, derives from a pre-Christian celebration of trees and nature. Quercus and Tilia trees have been considered to have been incorporated into celebrations and rituals during pre-Christian times (51) .
Yards, roads, gates, and fences are decorated with the aerial parts of Acorus calamus, and before Pentecost they are sold in markets everywhere (Figure 4). The interviewees could not explain the significance of many decorations and used expressions like “my grandmom used to do so,” and “it is because the spring is green, everything is green, and so we decorate yards. The holiday is called ‘Green Holiday’” (woman, born in 1965, Roztochya). A Hutsul woman, born in 1960, explained that she used the “yellow bog plant called ‘zovti slipaky’” [probably Acorus calamus, but she could not provide a more specific description nor a voucher specimen, or Iris pseudacorus, which has very similar leaves to Acorus calamus] for fence decoration to protect against all evil, which could not enter the yard; this was done for Green Sunday and St. George’s Day. She was the only interviewee who discussed this holiday and the use of this plant; however, the historical data (13) mention this use of Acorus calamus.
The practice of blessing bouquets was exclusive to the Roztochya area. Our Roztochya interviewees stated that they either collect the flowers themselves or buy them from the local market. They named some specific plants, such as Mentha spp., Dianthus spp., Alchemilla vulgaris, and Paeonia spp., but also just mentioned the beautiful and colorful wild and cultivated flowers. According to Hutsul folk beliefs (13,17,55), flower bouquets are considered to have strong medicinal properties and they are used for apotropaic purposes. Our interviewers still remember using plants from Pentecostal bouquets for healing: “In the past people used these bouquets when cows were sick. They knew what herbs should be in the bouquets. Nowadays we use herbs from the garden, like mint and other flowers and herbs.” At the same time, the tradition of using such bouquets for funeral rituals was stronger and still preserved today: “We still use these bouquets for making a pillow for a deceased person; these bouquets are put into the coffin” (woman, born in 1959, Roztochya).
Historically, aromatic herbs (like Mentha spp.) were used to decorate the house and yard to protect against evil forces (26,27). Acorus calamus was used against bad water spirits and this practice is still widely used in Roztochya (Figure 4). This practice of decorating the house and yard was also observe during Soviet times as it was not forbidden to decorate the home (26). The trees historically used for yard decoration (11,26,55), such as Quercus spp., Tilia spp., and Acer spp., are the same as those used in both areas today. In Bukovina, Hutsuls decorated churches with carpets of herbs (see Figure 7), which has been described as a historical practice (26). Yards and fences were decorated with the branches of different types of trees (oak, birch, acer, and linden) in both study areas (Figure 13).
Corpus Christi – Боже тіло [Bozhe tilo] – 60th day after Easter (May-June)
In Roztochya, wreaths made out of a variety of plants were used for blessing on this holiday (Figure 2). Our interviewees explained that each household must have three wreaths. The obligatory plants included Fragaria spp., Vaccinium spp., and other forest species. Also, one respondent pointed out that “One has to know how to make proper wreaths, so it is better to buy them. My grandmother always made three wreaths, one was made from rozhidnuk [Sedum acre], and two were made from other herbs. Then those wreaths were kept in the house as protection against evil” (woman, born in 1959, Roztochya). “My mom told me that it should be a separate wreath from rozhidnyk [Sedum acre],” highlighted another woman born in 1979. This is in line with the Fischer data, where Sedum acre was named for the Corpus Christi blessing. “All medicinal herbs are used,” explained a woman born in 1963. “The wreath should be near the entrance door for the whole year,” highlighted a woman (born in 1963) from the Roztochya area.
In Bukovina, such wreath blessings were not reported, as Orthodox Christians do not celebrate this holiday. Historically, in the areas around Lviv, this practice was named by Fischer, but it was not observed in Bukovina based on Kaindl (13).
Kupala – St. John’s – Івана Купала- Івана зілльового [Ivana Kupala- Ivana Zillovoho] – 7th of July, Saint John’s Day
In the Bukovina region, herbal bouquets were blessed at Orthodox churches on the 7th of July, yet this was not reported in the Roztochya district. Different forest and meadow plants were used (Figure 3). The church was decorated with Betula trees and occasionally other plants (Figure 5). Attention was given to plants that have medicinal properties, as according to interviewees this holiday takes place at the proper time to harvest medicinal plants. “All herbs need to be collected before the Ivana holiday, then blessed, then used as medicine or just kept in the home to protect from all evil. But one should know which herbs to use,” highlighted a Hustul man born in 1980. “All the [medicinal] herbs should be collected before the Ivana holiday, and bathing with those herbs is good,” explained a Hutsul man born in 1950. “We blessed zillya [herbs] on the Ivana Zilliyovogo holiday,” explained a Hutsul woman born in 1942, and “the blessed herbs are given to cattle,” highlighted a middle-aged Hutsul woman. Most of the interviewees referred to this holiday as “Ivana Zillyovogo,” “Kupala” or just “Ivana,” no one called it St. John the Baptist Day. “Starting with this herb, everything needs to be collected before the Ivana holiday, before Ivana all herbs need to be harvested,” explained a Hutsul man born in 1950. The collection of medicinal plants after St. John’s Day was not allowed (27). Remarkably, 23% of respondents mentioned bouquets in general, not specifying any plant taxa, but rather “just beautiful green herbs” for blessing.
According to popular beliefs, which were documented by Kainld (13), gate decoration with herbs was used to protect against witches. Different ‘zillya’ [medicinal herbs] were blessed on this day and later used for medicinal purposes. Kylumnyk (27) and Hilarion (51) suggested that before the advent of Christianity, Ukrainians used to celebrate a number of holidays connected to the seasons of the year and the harvest. They proposed that the Kupala holiday (Купальська ніч) celebrated at midsummer was then incorporated into the Saint John’s Day holiday, but the ritual of herb collection and that medicinal properties of those herbs retained the best qualities left from that time.
The blessing of herbal bouquets was described by Voropay (26) and Kylymnyk (27); however, both of them detailed the pre-Christian roots of this celebration. The specific plant here was St. John’s herb (Hypericum perforatum), which after blessing was used for healing humans and cattle (26,55). In Bukovina, Hypericum perforatum blessed on St. John’s Day was named by 11% of interviewees. The medicinal plant was then stored at home behind an icon of the Saint (26), which is in line with the description of one interviewee.
There has also been discussion, lead by Kononenko (9), that the re-vitalization of the Ivana Kypala holiday could be of Soviet origin, as in the 1960s some calendar holidays and rituals were re-introduced, especially in Central Ukraine, and this could be the case in Bukovina.
The Makoviya – Маковея- Маковія – [Makoveia – Makoviia] – 14th of August, Honey Feast of the Savior
According folk belief, the name Makoviya derives from that of poppy seeds: “mak” in both Ukrainian and Russian. However, church authorities have argued that it is the name of Saint Makkavei and has nothing to do with poppy seeds (Figure 14).
Poppy seeds with garlic gloves and Arthemisia absinthium, as well as different herbs, were named as parts of the baskets for blessing in both study areas. Respondents in Roztochya identified Arthemisia absinthium and Cirsium spp. as the main herbs for this holiday. Honey was also named as a product to be blessed. A Hutsul woman born in 1965 said, “We bless honey and poppy seeds on Makoviya.” The blessed herbs from the bouquets were used for the fumigation of children and cattle explained a middle-aged woman from the Roztochya area. Most of the interviewees declared that both Makoviya and the Transfiguration (see below) were the fruit blessing holidays, and baskets were often blessed on a single day (as there are only five days between these holidays).
Historical sources describe the blessing of honey, water and poppy seeds on this holiday, which is referred to as “First Savior – Першого Спаса [Pershogo Spasa].” Calendula officinalis, Tagetes paluta, and Ocimum basilicum were among the herbs documented by Voropay (26).
Apple Feast of the Savior – Яблучний Спас – Спаса [Yabluchnyi Spas – Spasa] – 19th of August, celebrating the Feast of the Transfiguration
Garden fruits as well as poppy seeds and garlic gloves are used for blessing in both study areas. Apples are considered the main fruits of the holiday. The flowers of Tagetes spp. were used for the decoration of fruit baskets. Our interviewees explained that in the past only fruit from home gardens were used, but nowadays purchased fruit is also included: “Nowadays even oranges are blessed.” The baskets with fruits as well as bouquets with fruits and herbs were named as equally important for blessing on this holiday (Figure 6). “We bless poppy seeds and herbs and honey and grapes and apples on the Transfiguration holiday,” highlighted a Hutsul woman born in 1965.
In Bukovina, Kaindl (13) explained that Hutsuls did not eat fruit from their own gardens before this holiday. Only after the fruits were blessed in church on Transfiguration Day were Hutsuls permitted to consume them. A Hutsul woman, born in 1984, explained that now also apples can only be eaten after they are blessed on the Feast of the Transfiguration: “Before the Spasa holiday one cannot eat apples. Apples and honey are blessed on that holiday.”
Historical comparison
The list of plants used in ceremonies and rituals recorded by Adam Fischer in the 1930s, in the territory of Western Ukraine, contained 85 taxa (17), which is 28 more than were identify in the current study; so we can assume that the diversity of uses today has changed compare to 100 years ago, and one of the factors that influenced the decrease in the variety of taxa used was the prohibition period. But according field results, some traditions were not interrupted. The diversity of past and present uses of plant taxa is shown in Figure 15-16. The data provided by Kujawska (17) that Vinca minor was the most used taxon for hair decoration by brides is in line with the statement of a retired female interviewee in Roztochya: “In the past every bride had a wreath with barvinok [Vinca minor], but nowadays this custom is gone.” Blessed herbs were burned during storms, against thunder, which is also consistent with the explanation regarding the importance of blessed herbs today given by interviewees from both Bukovina and Roztochya. Out of a combined 64 taxa used in Roztochya and Bukovina, only 18 taxa were shared with the dataset of 85 taxa used in rituals documented by Fischer (17) (Figure 15). Among the abundant plants which are no longer used are cultivars that were grown as decorative plants (Phlox spp., Ruta graveolens L., Helianthus annuus L., Helianthus tuberosus L., Myrtus communis L., Nigella damascena L., Calendula officinalis L., Malva sylvestris L.), aromatic plants (Salvia officinalis L., Origanum vulgare L. Carum carvi L.), and ruderal plants (Amaranthus hybridus, Plantago media, Urtica spp.). However, the use of Origanum vulgare and Calendula officinalis were witnessed at church blessing ceremonies during participatory observation, but were not named by interviewees.
Eight taxa were commonly used in Roztochya and Bukovina and also listed in the Fischer dataset as plants used in rituals. Those taxa are equally distributed among cultivated (Malus domestica, Triticum aestivum, Papaver spp., Allium sativum) and wild plants (Achillea millefolium, Matricaria chamomilla, Thymus spp., Tilia spp.) (Figure 16).
The decoration of yards for Willow Sunday and Pentecost are the same, but in Bukovina the decoration of houses and gates takes place on St. John’s Day (Figure 17), while in Roztochya wreaths blessed on Corpus Christi are put close to entrance doors for apotropaic purposes. Only Salix branches are blessed in Bukovina while in Roztochya it is whole bouquets of this species. The blessing of medicinal herbs takes place on St. John’s Day in Bukovina, while in Roztochya it is bouquets on Pentecost. Fruits in both areas are blessed on the Transfiguration holiday (Figure 17).
The dominant color in all 3 datasets was green, followed by yellow and white (Figure 18).
Figure 19 shows that the use of wild taxa was more prevalent in the past compared to their contemporary use in both study areas. This can perhaps be explained by the fact that nowadays people tend to use cultivated taxa and spend less time collecting wild plants.