Color associations in landscape design and subscription levels to these associations

In the present study, a two-tiered research method was adopted. In the first stage, a literature review was conducted to determine the associations that landscape colors evoke in individuals and each association was converted into a statement for each color. The developed 5-point Likert-type scale was submitted for expert opinion (N = 200), and factor analysis was conducted on the findings to determine correlated sub-factors and categorized in the same factor. Thus, three factor groups were determined. Thus, the survey form that will be used in the second study stage was finalized. The factor analysis was also conducted to reduce the number of statements in the scale. Furthermore, 102 statements with a factor load of below 0.30 were excluded. Thus, the final scale included 34 associations in 3 dimensions. In the second stage, the final 5-point Likert-type survey form was applied to the expert group (N = 200) and the participants (N = 200) to determine the agreement of these two groups with the associations. Also, the differences between the agreement levels of the two groups with the associations and the differences between the associations were determined. The statistical analyses revealed that there was a difference between the mean association scores of the participant and the expert groups in 3 factor groups at 0.05 significance level (sig. 0.000, F = 34.432). The direction and size of the correlations between the factors were determined with the correlation analysis, multiple regression analysis was conducted to determine the effect of the factors on others, and it was determined that there was a positive significant correlation between 1st factor and agreement and a negative significant correlation between the 2nd and 3rd factor groups and agreement. The order of the factors that explained the variation in agreement was the 1st factor (ß = .332; p = 0.000), the 2nd factor (ß =  − .274; p = 0.000), and the 3rd factor (ß =  − .157; p = 0.001), respectively.


Landscape design and color
The significant visual features of design elements include color, as well as line, scale, and form. In landscape design, color is mostly observed on plant leaves, flowers, seeds, shoots, and stems in landscapes. Plants are living organisms that adapt to the environment with their colors to survive and reproduce. Plant colors and fruits create points of attraction during pollination, while they imitate the environment to deter pests (Aşur and Alphan 2018;Altınçekiç, 2000;Zeren et al. 2017;Taş, 2019).
Color is associated with perception and can evoke sensory, behavioral, physical meanings, and strong reactions. Almost everyone, subconsciously or consciously, reacts to colors (Sharpe 1974;Williams and Patterson 1999). Although these reactions include emotions such as pleasure, happiness, energy, calmness, excitation, or discomfort, they are almost always immediate (Stanley 2006;Menatti and Casado Da Rocha 2016;Rosen and Purinton 2004;Fraser and Banks 2004). In addition to creating emotions of well-being, pleasure, peace, contrast, excitement, and energy in a space, colors could also lead to perceptions such as warm or cold, light or dark, and happiness or sadness (Valdez and Mehrabian 1994;Hanada 2018;Ou et al. 2018;Wilms and Oberfeld 2018;Chetverikov et al. 2017;Kou et al. 2019;Yılmaz et al. 2018Yılmaz et al. , Çorbacı et al. 2018Düzenli et al. 2018).
Like plants, humans exhibit certain reactions to colors throughout their development, and it was scientifically evidenced that these reactions are associated with survival, similar to other living beings. For instance, the combination of yellow and black is considered a danger signal, and we know that we should beware when we see yellowblack wasps. These adaptations and reactions have developed through centuries of experience. Throughout history, people believed in the healing power of colors. Colors have psychological effects; thus, spatial colors could be manipulated to obtain specific reactions. In design, a space painted in an attractive red always raises interest and increases the body temperature. On the contrary, the same space painted in cool shades of blue could have the opposite effect, leading to a feeling of calm and comfort by reducing blood pressure, heart rate, and brain waves. Thus, it is possible to employ color in design to manipulate individuals' reactions and spatial perceptions (Al-Zamil 2017;Hamdy Mahmoud 2017;Costa et al. 2018;Delcampo-Carda et al. 2019;Yıldırım et al. 2019;Banaei et al 2020;Ma et al. 2020).
In recent years, the rapid horticultural advances in landscape design led to several color choices for designers. The use of leafy and flowering plants in several colors in plant design demonstrated the increasing importance of color in landscaping. In addition to its biological functions, color allows the creation of pleasant effects in landscape compositions. For successful use of plant colors, knowledge on the concepts of color and color harmony and the analysis of color options are required in design. Adequate choice of color adds significant value and expression to the composition, while inadequate color combinations would lead to undesired and boring space (Cılek and Cılek 2020;Ma et al. 2020;Saeedi and Dabbagh 2020;Lee et al. 2020).
Basic knowledge on color use is adapted from fine arts and especially painting in landscape design. However, there are certain differences between color uses in planting design and painting. First, the space depicted in a painting usually reflects the colors visible for an exact moment. Second, when the colors have different pigments in a painting, it is predominantly perceived as black, while when the plants with different pigments are combined in a space, white or whitish colors are most likely prominent (Yazdanpanah et al. 2020;Kou et al. 2019;Wilms and Oberfeld 2018).
Certain color theories could be used in landscape design. Color theories are quite complex, and systematic studies on modern color theories date back to the 1800s. The development of modern color theory began in Goethe's book "The Theory of Colors" published in 1840 (Chance 1933). Numerous studies have been conducted on colors and perception since then. To solve the mystery of the colors, British physicist Newton bended the sunlight with a prism and reflected the seven colors on a curtain, similar to the rainbow. Newton and next generation of color scientists allowed the designers to apply the knowledge on colors (Esposito 2020). Based on the color theories, the assessment of color is subjective. Perception, personal experiences, and pleasure influence the assessment Guo et al. 2020). A better understanding of color perception would be an advantage in spatial plant selection. The first step to determine the color in design is the understanding of basic color concepts and developing a general language for color. Thus, it is necessary to know how colors are associated, how they look in various lighting conditions, how colors affect individuals, and how they create a spatial mood. Color is an optical effect that occurs when light is absorbed or reflected by object surfaces. In other words, color is the result of a reaction to light in human eye retina. The light that reaches human eye is perceived by the receptors in the retina and interpreted in the brain as the perception of a particular color (Baek et al. 2020).

Classification of colors
Color types include neutral, warm, and cold colors based on heat perception. Warm colors are yellow, orange, and red. Cool colors are purple, blue-purple, blue-green, and yellow green. Neutral colors are black, white, and gray. The warmness, coldness, neutrality or the lightness, darkness, and dullness of the colors are effective in spatial design (Yıldırım et al. 2019). Warm colors consist of red, orange, and yellow on the spectrum. These colors have high wavelength, hence visual energy, and could be noticed from far away. Due to these properties, they create a convergence effect. Thus, they allow a space to appear smaller and distant or large spaces are perceived closer or smaller than they really are. Among these colors, red catches the eye more quickly and allows objects to appear closer. Warm colors are active and dynamic colors; they increase the focus on one area; have stimulating and uplifting effects; provide a sense of mobility, vitality, and joy; and create an image of fire, warmth, and sun. However, excessive use of these colors could be tiring. While these colors provide a sense of warmth in cold weather, they are suffocating and tiring in hot weather. In spaces with warm colors, time passes faster for the occupants (Yıldırım et al. 2019;Kuo and Lai 2017). Cold colors are associated with the sky, water, ice, forest, and shadows and consist of green, blue, and purple. Since the wavelengths of these colors are weaker when compared to warm colors, they have relaxing effects. Thus, cold colors evoke the senses of coolness and calmness. They have chilling effects in cold spaces and cooling and relaxing effects in warm ones. Cool colors exhibit static properties. These colors create a sense or tendency of divergence in the landscape, and the space looks larger than it really is, since these colors have low visual energy. For example, the objects seem further away on a blue background. Although the spaces with cold colors seem farther and smaller than they really are, the background may appear larger than it really is (Altınçekiç 2000; Yıldırım et al. 2019). Neutral colors include warm and cool colors, as well as neutral colors such as black, white, and gray. Gray is a mixture of black and white. Among neutral colors, white adds lightness and proximity to objects, and black provides depth (Altınçekiç, 2000;Yıldırım et al. 2019).
Conventional approach to warm and cold colors has sometimes been quite simple. Color theorist Albers (2013) stated in "Interaction of Color" that the temperature of colors was relative and only perceived when the colors are compared (Albers 2013). Thus, it is not always true that warm colors always lead to warm emotions in plant compositions. According to Albers, green and purple are neither warm nor cool colors and are neutral. If these colors are placed next to warm colors, they could be perceived as warm, and when they are close to cold colors, they are perceived as cold (Culp 2018;Ivanovic and Rossi 2017). For example, purple feels warm next to a red and cold when it is next to a blue. Similarly, green is warm when close to yellow and cold when next to a blue. The lightness and darkness of the colors also lead to differences in spatial perception in design. Black and purple are employed as dark tones; blue, red, and green are employed as middle tones; and orange, yellow, and white are employed as light tones in compositions. Dark colors and tones evoke calmness and peace; they evoke depressive emotions when used excessively in the composition. Dark tones have a convergence effect, shortening the distance between the observed and the object (Pernão, 2017). Thus, dark and bright colors, similar to the warm colors, make the space smaller than it really is, and plants with these colors limit and constrict the space. Furthermore, they create a sense of rhythm when used at regular intervals. On the contrary, light colors and tones allow the space to be perceived larger when compared to darker plants. Light-colored plants create a sense of spaciousness and evoke the emotions of joy and excitement. Furthermore, light colors are repellents. Thus, light and matte colors make the space look bigger, similar to the cold colors (Savavibool & Moorapun 2017).

Color in the world of plants
The effects and intended use of colors that landscape architects utilize in design to create associations and visual impressions are as follows (Aşur 2019;Manav 2017;Plass et al. 2020;Disabato-Aust 2003;Scarfone 2010;Hansen 2012;Hansen and Alvarez 2010;Ahi 2017;Lee 2010;Kiang 2008;Hutchings 1997). The effects and meanings of colors on individuals and society could vary or change in time. Also, not all colors mean the same for everyone. For example, a red object would be perceived by everyone with a normal vision; however, the subconscious reactions to the effects of the perceived color would differ for every individual. This is associated with the individual's experiences, psychological state, and proximity to the color. One of the aims of the present study was to determine the colors employed in landscape design and the associations of the colors evoked in individuals and to determine the level of agreement with these associations in the participants. These associations could be sensory, physical, and behavioral.
Green, a cool color on the color spectrum, leads to emotions of nature, open air, and countryside. It is the symbol of nature, strong development, efficiency and abundance, life, and vitality. Green, important in religious and mystical beliefs, is the main color of Islam and a symbol of immortality in Christianity. Leaves are generally green in color. However, the tone of the green differs between the species. For example, the leaves of plants such as Acer buergerianum, Gingko biloba, Cupressus macrocarpa 'Goldcrest', Robinia hispida, and Cytisus laburnum are light green, those of Aesculus × carnea, Bauhinia variegata, Wisteria sinensis, and Acer tataricum are medium green, while the leaves of Acer pseudoplatanus, Aesculus hippocastanum, dark green Crataegus × lavalleei, Pinus pinea, and Taxus baccata are very dark green. Furthermore, the leaves of plants such as Asarum europaeum, Fatsia japonica, Ilex latifolia, Prunus lusitanica, and Acer campestre are bright green.
Since green is a peaceful, calming, and heartwarming color and vitalizes individuals, it is a primary color in landscape design. Since green is the perfect background color, it plays a key role in the relationships between colors. Green is a dominant color, but due to its incredible range of tonal variations, it creates an attractive spatial atmosphere. In design, dark green allows the individuals to distance themselves from the space and yellowish green shortens this distance. On the other hand, light green plants lead to a lighter, cooler, and higher mood. Furthermore, transparent plants with bright and light green leaves create a distance between the composition and the observer and the space is perceived wider (Guo et al. 2020;Mohseni et al. 2020;Güneş and Olguntürk 2020;Aşur and Alphan 2018;Altınçekiç 2000;Taş 2019;Sharpe 1974).
Blue is the color of the sea and sky and the symbol of infinity and eternity. It evokes stability, consistency, continuity, endurance, stability, nobility, and accuracy. Blue promotes creative ideas; is cool, distinctive, distant, calm, and shy; and leads to comfortable, tranquil, cool, comfortable, and peaceful spaces. It heals and relaxes the nerves and provides an easy thinking and working environment. Since it is a calm and relaxing color, it provides spaciousness and could turn leisure spaces into extremely calm environments. Thus, it could be perceived as a calm color in entertainment venues, although it is also suitable for meditation and thinking spaces, since it prevents psychological depression and reduces stress. Plants with true blue flowers, fruits, or leaves are rare in nature. Diospyros lotus and Berberis veitchii fruits are blue, Picea pungens Glauca leaves are blue, and Hydrangea macrophylla, Linum sp., Anagallis sp., Ceanothus skylark, and Anchusa azurea flowers are blue. Most appear in the spring rather than the summer. However, culture and genetic efforts led to the development of several blue plants. The blue colors of these plants are in fact lavender or purple. Most blue flowers also contain red. Blue is a cool color that creates spatial distance and perception of a space larger than it actually is and allows the observer to focus on a distant point. Thus, plants with flowers in short-wavelength blue colors are often perceived farther than their actual location and used to create depth in the composition. In the composition, blue creates breathing points between warm colors, as well as binding the colors in the composition. Blue could bind different red tones such as lilac, violet, and indigo. Furthermore, blue could be used to create shadows and could be planted in pots and containers (Guo et al. 2020;Mohseni et al. 2020;Güneş and Olguntürk 2020;Aşur and Alphan 2018;Altınçekiç, 2000;Taş, 2019;Sharpe 1974).
Purple is a color with a unique and effective shade with introversion, mysterious, melancholic, and mystical effects. Purple, the inspirational color of peace and pursuit, has been used as a symbol of royalty, wealth, and knowledge throughout history. In art, purple is used to express the lack of sun and transparent shades. Purple, employed mainly by the impressionists, symbolizes restlessness, mysticism, and depth and evokes danger and courage. Short-wavelength purple creates spatial distance and adds depth to the composition. Dark purple generally blends easily with other colors. Dark purple offers pleasant and relaxing compositions when used with silver, gray, peach, coral, and rust colors. However, excessive use could lead to depressing and gloomy views and a sense of isolation in the composition. It can also be a soulless and dull color in vibrant environments with inadequate sunlight. Thus, unsaturated lilac and purple could be ineffective in shade; thus, plants in these colors could be used in large patches to create romantic effects. Plants with purple flowers include Rhododendron ponticum, Paulownia tomentosa, Hebe veronica, Calluna vulgaris, Cercis siliquastrum, Magnolia grandiflora, Rosmarinus officinalis, and Rhododendron smirnowii (Guo et al. 2020;Mohseni et al. 2020;Güneş and Olguntürk 2020;Altınçekiç, 2000;Taş, 2019;Sharpe 1974).
Yellow that represents gold, sun, and light is the symbol of wisdom, power, and common sense. Yellow has been employed as a royal color like purple and is an inspiring color in bright and pure tones and stimulates intellect. As a dominant color, it draws attention to the space, like the flame of a candle or a magnet. Thus, yellow is perfect to enliven dark spaces and lower parts of the trees. Golden yellow is ideal to enliven shaded areas, and plants with golden leaves on a shady roadside create "luminous spots." There are several bulbous and perennial plants and shrubs with yellow flowers. Yellow is the color of the spring-blooming daffodil. Plants with yellow stems or those that turn yellow in autumn or with yellow speckles are common in nurseries. Euonymus japonica 'Aurea' has yellow leaves; Acacia dealbata has light yellow flowers; Hippophae rhamnoides, Jasminum fruticans, and Forsythia × intermedia blossom yellow flowers in late summer; and Spartium junceum and Mahonia aquifolium are ideal for borders with yellow flowers. The yellow is compatible with almost all colors. However, yellow and golden yellow plants such as Acer verticillata and Rhododendron luteum create a contrast when combined with plants of opposite colors (blue, purple, or even pink). Yellow complements purple. Thus, these plants go well with purples, blues, and blue-violets (Guo et al. 2020; Mohseni et al. 2020;Güneş and Olguntürk 2020;Aşur and Alphan 2018;Altınçekiç, 2000;Taş, 2019;Sharpe 1974;Karaşah 2015, 2018;Karaşah 2021;Surat 2017Surat , 2020. Orange is the color of invitation and abundance, children, and play. Although it is a warm color, it is not as dynamic as red. When viewed, it evokes warmth, stimulating and heartwarming emotions, happiness, optimism, and joy. Orange evokes brightness, wealth, light, and efficiency, and it is the color of autumn and flame, symbolizing wisdom, justice, enlightenment, and revelation. It offers entertaining spaces for children, and it is also an exotic color. But it cannot be viewed for a long time. In plants, flowers, barks, and shoots could be orange, as well as the autumn leaves. While several annual, biannual, and perennial plants such as Eschscholzia californica have orange flowers, there are also several woody shrubs with orange fruits that attract birds in the fall. Euphorbia griffithii, Fritillaria imperialis 'Rubra maxima', Tulipa, Geum, and Helenium blossom with orange flowers in spring; Sorbus sargentiana leaves turn orange in autumn and has orange shoots in winter. Tilia cordata 'Winter Orange' and the orange fruits of Physalis alkekengi are attractive. Secondary colors such as orange, red, and yellow could dominate compatible colors. Several Graminea (Stipa gigantea and Calamagrostis) could create pleasant compositions with attractive pink bronze flowers among orange plants. Thus, reddish brown and earth colors go well with orange. Orange is harmonious with yellow and red plants, while when combined with blue, for example, in Lobelia and Tagetes combination, it is shocking. It could be combined with orange bronze or ivory for less striking effects. The complementary blue affects the orange even more in the composition. Bright orange spots in a blue space exhibit dramatic effects and alter the blue balance (Guo et al. 2020; Mohseni et al. 2020;Güneş and Olguntürk 2020;Aşur and Alphan 2018;Altınçekiç 2000;Taş 2019;Sharpe 1974;Kahveci and Acar 2018).
Red symbolizes danger, aggression, vitality, provocation, and war. The light and pure tones of red symbolize love and sensuality, while dark tones reflect excessive passion, anger, and stress. Red is the color of desire and warmth, and it is reminiscent of blood, sun, and fire. Red is warm, exciting, and provocative, symbolizing the red rose and love. Red vibrates as the strongest and most dynamic color in the spectrum. Due to refreshing and active properties, it sometimes encourages individuals to move in a space, which sometimes increases the blood pressure. Since it provides positive energy, hope and strength, and mental warmth, it could be used in near seating furniture or in leisure spaces. Although red is perceived as a single color, there are 2 types of red. Warm red is close to orange, while cold red is closer to purple. The employment of bluish reds with dark colors such as dark blue, purple, bronze, and brown leads to a rich space. Since red catches the eye, a bright and vibrant red immediately adds a shock to the composition. Compositions that include red create a stopping point in our movements. Thus, red could be used to create surprising spaces. Especially in group compositions, dense red spots attract the gaze like a magnet, creating balance and rhythm in the composition. In narrow compositions, depth could be achieved with red on the front and cold colors in the background. However, it may not be right to employ several reds in hospital gardens, since they might create tension, fear, and anxiety in long exposure. Due to its demoralizing and depressing effect, it is best to use red in the form of dots. The red blooming plants include Callistemon citrinus, Chamaecyparis japonica, Erica carnea, Erica cinerea, and Hibiscus rosa-sinensis. Plants also with leaves that turn red include Acer palmatum 'Atropurpurea', Prunus cerasifera 'Atropurpurea', and Acer White is a mixture of all colors. The refreshing white represents goodness, innocence, cleanliness, and nobility. It is a symbol of abstract and intelligence. In several cultures, white symbolizes high ideals and divinity. A white garden often creates a sense of freshness, status, intellect, and formality.
The white is used to reflect purity, brightness, order, and romance and stands out in birch stems, snowdrop flowers, and rowan and snowberry fruits. White flowering plants include Arbutus unedo, Deutzia scabra, Jasminum officinale, Fatsia japonica, Spirea × vanhouttei, Spirea prunifolia, and Rhododendron caucasicum. White could be combined with almost all colors without problem. White increases the strength of other colors, and they could be combined to create balanced compositions. The stimulating, fresh, and delicate effects of white flowers increase when used in groups instead of in combination with other colors. Other colors appear more distinct or darker in a composition with white, increasing contrast and saturation. Red is perceived as crimson on snow. Dark colors such as dark polished greens create a contrast with white, leading to focus in design. Medium gray and green tones go well with white plants, creating a soft effect. White is compatible with bright grays. Colortheme gardens (white gardens) could be designed with white color compositions. Thus, white gardens are a good start for monochromatic color compositions. In such a garden, associations between the white and off-white, cream-yellow or pink, green, or lavender flowers should be utilized instead of true white colors to create pleasant expressions (Guo et al. Black characterizes gravity and seriousness. Black is the symbol of solitude and tranquility and could evoke evil. Black is also an effective color, similar to white, that could reflect every desire or fear. When used on small surfaces, black creates vitality and a feeling of anxiety and fear when used on large surfaces. It reminds people of troubles and worries, but it is also true that we wear black dresses in joyful times and for special occasions. In this case, black is an indicator of personality. Although the true black color does not exist in nature, the flowers, leaves, or shoots on plants look like black. This perceived black is actually a variation of red or purple. For example, the very popular black tulip Tulipa 'Queen of Night' or Tulipa nigra 'Barlaensis' is actually dark purple, and Ranunculus ficaria 'Brazen Hussy' is dark bronze. Black plants create a dramatic effect in the landscape and attract the gaze due to the power of black. When combined with whites, the effect of both colors increases. Thus, the drama of a white composition increases with the dark color or shade effect created by black. For example, when Alcea rosea 'Nigra' or Alcea rosea 'Black Beauty' is used with white-flowered perennials (Eupatorium rugosum or Lysimachia clethroides), the perception of the flower color intensifies (Guo et al. 2020;Mohseni et al. 2020;Aşur and Alphan 2018;Altınçekiç 2000;Taş 2019;Sharpe 1974).
Gray, the element of compromise and balance, represents humility and a dignified kindness. Gray, which lacks the dominant weight of black, psychologically evokes peace, tranquility, modesty, and caution in individuals. Plants with silver and gray leaves have various surface textures that range between leather or soft waxy surfaces and fuzzy or hard hairy ones. The hairy and waxy structure of the plant reflects the sunlight to different directions, and the plant is perceived as grayish. Gray color is also the color of leaves that conjure warm and dry climates. Gray-leaved plants often require well-drained soil and are therefore difficult to grow. Several grow in hot, dry locations and like the wind. These plants are also affected by weather and temperature conditions. For example, they appear in green or blue tones in shade or in winter. Gray colors are indispensable for a designer. The neutral properties of the color and its the harmonizing effect in compositions with extensive number of elements are among the important advantages of gray. Gray color contrasts with dark plants and highlights the plant groups that include gray plants due to their reflective and light-absorbing properties. Gray-colored plants such as Stachys byzantina, Veronica incana, Artemisia 'Silver Mound', Artemisia 'Silver King', Anaphalis margaritacea, and Anaphalis triplinervis create nice contrasts behind dark green, bright leafy plants, and colorful flower arrangements. Gray also acts as a bridge by providing neutral transitions between striking colors and textures.
Pink is a warm and nice shade of red and evokes friendliness, youth, freshness and emotions. Pink is a prevalent flower color. It is used as a binder between strong colors. It allows successful compositions especially in locations with cloud cover and soft light. It adds vitality to shady spaces, similar to other pastel colors. Although pink is perceived like a simple color that includes white and red, the compositions that include pink are quite complex. However, independent of the shade, pink always allows the perception of red in a composition. Pink turns into peach color when combined with yellow. Thus, peach includes red and yellow or white tones. Saturated peaches create luminous and bright spaces and create effective contrasts with dark plants. Pink flowering plants include Spirea bumalda, Weigela coraeensis, and Lagerstroemia indica.
Variegated plants vary in color in the form of stripes, spots, or patches in yellow to yellow-green, bluish-green, or white. The most visually important function of variegated plants, the leaves of which play a dramatic role in plant compositions, is their power to focus the attention and create an emphasis in landscape design. Yellow variegated plants are important design elements that would allow the addition of yellow to the space. The golden variegated plants are especially effective in high altitudes with little light in winter, and most preserve their color until the leaves fall. Yellow variegated leaves create clear, bright, luminous effects and could be combined with contrast colors or other warm colors. Plants with purple and yellow leaves could be combined for visual excitement. Since variegated plants are neutral, they can be combined with plants of several colors and textures. The variegated white offers cool effects in design and is harmonious with cold colors. Creating strong contrasts with red and orange plants, white variegated plants are best combined with plants with blue, purple, and pink flowers. These plants reflect light, lighten shaded areas, and especially the dark and shady corners. The inclusion of several species with variegated leaves in design could lead to powerful effects. Sometimes they could be quite ornamental. Although variegated plants create attractive points or emphasis, sometimes plants may look diseased in yellow variegated compositions. On the other hand, pure golden yellow leaves look healthier in the composition and improve the power of the design with their attractive and lively presentation. Effective color combinations could be achieved with yellow and golden variegated foliage and dark varieties. The plants with variegated leaves include Euonymus japonica 'Aurea variegata',

Material and method
The study sample The research was conducted in two stages. In the first stage, a pilot scheme was conducted with a group of experts (N = 200). Based on the analysis of the pilot scheme data, the survey form was finalized. The expert group included landscape architects (N = 200). In the second stage, the survey was applied to the open green space occupants in Afyonkarahisar Province (N = 400) and the same expert group (N = 200). In other words, a survey was conducted with 200 participants in the first stage and 400 individuals in the second stage.

The study area
The final survey was conducted in Veysel Eroğlu Park, one of the open green spaces in central Selçuklu District in Afyonkarahisar Province ( Table 2).
The Veysel Eroğlu Park covers 55,000 m 2 across the Kocatepe century cemetery on Afyon-Izmir highway. The total indoor space is 845 m 2 . Indoor spaces include a cafeteria and a library. This space was surrounded by an 850 m 2 ornamental pool. The cafeteria has a 1000-m 2 outdoor dining area.
A total of 40,700 saplings and ornamental plants and 120 tall trees were transplanted in the park. The park includes 3600 m 2 tartan walking path, children's playgrounds, outdoor sports field, basketball court, astro turf, foot volleyball court, foot tennis court, foot billiard field, foot soccer field, bowling field, adventure track, mini golf courses, and cable car promenades. In addition, there are seating areas, a pergola, and picnic areas.

The development of the survey form
The study was conducted with two survey forms. The pilot survey form was applied to an expert group (Table 3). This form was employed to develop the final survey form in the study. In the pilot scheme, the 102-item Likert-type form that included color associations (red, orange, yellow, green, blue, purple, pink, white, black, gray, variegated) in landscape design was applied to the expert group. Factor analysis was conducted on the associations indicated by the experts, and conceptual sub-factors were determined based on the  Landscape design in blue that associates me of the being loyal G9 Landscape design in green that associates me of the ambition P12 Landscape design in purple that associates me of the rare/rarity W3 Landscape design in white that associates me of the nobleness W6 Landscape design in white that associates me of the cleanliness GS2 Landscape design in gray-silvery that associates me of the balanced GS5 Landscape design in gray-silvery that associates me of the harmony GS6 Landscape design in gray-silvery that associates me of the softness BL3 Landscape design in black that associates me of the loneliness BL4 Landscape design in black that associates me of the tranquility BL6 Landscape design in black that associates me of the heartbroken BL7 Landscape design in black that associates me of the worry and fear PK6 Landscape design in pink that associates me of the friendly 2. Factor group GS3 Landscape design in gray-silvery that associates me of the quietness GS4 Landscape design in gray-silvery that associates me of the calmness P4 Landscape design in purple that associates me of the ethereally Y5 The yellow color in landscape design that associates me, powerless B2 Landscape design in blue that associates me of the serenity O1 The orange color in landscape design that associates me, happy O3 The orange color in landscape design that associates me, pleasant V6 Landscape design in variageted that associates me of the inviting R5 The red color in landscape design that associates me, raises blood 3. Factor group R9 The red color in landscape design that associates me, stop W7 Landscape design in white that associates me of the tidiness W8 Landscape design in white that associates me of the romantic G1 The green color in landscape design that associates me, friendly G2 The green color in landscape design that associates me, calming G6 The green color in landscape design that associates me, focusing B8 The green color in landscape design that associates me, jealousy B4 Landscape design in blue that associates me of the distance PK1 Landscape design in pink that associates me of the warmth O2 The orange color in landscape design that associates me, energetic O4 The orange color in landscape design that associates me, social associated variable groups. Thus, 68 items with a factor load of less than 0.30 were excluded, and the scale was reduced to 34 items. The 34 items in 3 factor groups explained 22.173% of the total variance. The final survey form included the following item groups: Section 1: Participant demographics. Section 2: 1st factor group color associations. Section 3: 2nd factor group color associations. Section 4: 3rd factor group color associations.
Based on the factor analysis, color associations in the 1st factor group according to the experts included separation, being loyal, ambition, rare/rarity, nobleness, cleanliness, balanced, harmony, softness, loneliness, tranquility, heartbroken, worry and fear, and friendly. The color associations in the second factor group included quietness, calmness, etherally, powerless, serenity, happy, pleasant, inviting, and raises blood. The color associations in the 3rd factor group included stop, tidiness,romantic,friendly,calming,focusing,jealousy,distance,warmth,energetic,and social (Tables 4 and 5).

Evaluation and data analysis
The participants the participants were asked to respond the questions on a Likert scale. The questions were scored with a 5-point Likert scale (1 = exactly disagree and 5 = exactly agree). The scale intervals were calculated with a = series width / number of target groups formula and options, and associated intervals are exactly disagree (1.00-1.79), disagree (1.80-2.59), partially agree (2.60-3,39), agree (3.40-4.19), and exactly agree (4.20-5.00) ( Table 6).
In the study, factor analysis with Varimax rotation was applied to the preliminary survey findings to determine the items in the final survey. To determine the suitability of the scale for factor analysis, the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) and Bartlett tests were conducted, and it was determined that the scale was suitable. The analysis of the final survey findings was conducted with the analysis of variance (ANOVA) with Bonferroni correction to determine whether there was a difference between the participation levels of the expert and user groups. After the determination of the difference between the participation levels of the experts and the users, the direction and significance of the correlations between the factors were determined with Pearson correlation analysis. Finally, multiple regression analysis was conducted with the enter method to determine the cross-effects of the factors.

Participant and expert group demographics
Participant demographics are presented in Table 7.

Color associations in the 1st factor group
The final survey form was applied to open green space occupants and experts (landscape architects) and the agreement levels of these two groups with the color associations were determined (Table 8). Thus, the agreement level of the occupants with the B1 association (blue reminds me of separation in landscape design) was partial (2.78) and that of the experts was at "I agree" (3.55). Similarly, the agreement level of the occupants with the B11 association (blue reminds me of loyalty was disagreement (2.255) and that of the expert group was partial agreement (3.225). The agreement level of the occupants with the G9 association (green reminds me of ambition in landscape design) was partial agreement (3.175), and that of the expert group was partial agreement (2.635). The agreement level of the occupants with the P12 association (purple reminds me of rarity in landscape design) was disagreement (2.335), and that of the expert group was also disagreement (2.405). The agreement level of the occupants with the W3 association (white reminds me of nobility in landscape design) was partial agreement (2.705), and that of the expert group was also partial agreement (2.89). The agreement level of the occupants with the W6 association was partial agreement (2.885), and that of the expert group was agreement (3.45). The agreement level of the occupants with the GS2 association was partial agreement (2.74) and that of the expert group was partial agreement (2.825). The agreement level of the occupants with the GS5 association was disagreement (2.395), and that of the expert group was partial agreement (3.125). The agreement level of the occupants with the GS6 association was partial agreement (3.24), and that of the expert group was a partial agreement (3.18). The agreement level of the occupants with the BL3 association was partial agreement (2.625), and that of the expert group was partial agreement (2.54). The agreement level of the occupants with the BL4 association was disagreement (2.4), and that of the expert group was partial agreement (3.19). The agreement level of the occupants with the BL7 association was partial agreement (3.285), and that of the expert group was partial agreement (3.2825). The agreement level of the occupants with the BL6 association was partial agreement (3.365), and that of the expert group was agreement (3.47). The agreement level of the occupants with the PK6 association was agreement (3.46), and that of the expert group was partial agreement (3.395). Arithmetic mean, standard deviation, and standard error for all 1st factor group color associations in the survey are presented in Table 8, and the findings on the agreement levels of both groups for each association are presented in Table 9. Thus, the analysis of the difference between the agreement levels with the color associations in both groups revealed that there was a difference between the agreement levels with B1, B11, G9, W6, GS5, and BL4 associations (p < 0.05). The review of the F values demonstrated that the highest difference was in B11 association, followed by BL4 and B1.

Color associations in the 2nd factor group
Each 2nd factor association item was analyzed individually, and the agreement levels of both groups with these associations were determined (Table 10). The agreement level of the occupants with the GS3 association was partial agreement (3.14), and that of the expert group was disagreement (2.58). The agreement level of the occupants with the GS4 association was partially agreement (3.245), and that of the expert group was partial agreement (2.75). The agreement level of the occupants with the P4 association was partial agreement (2.985), and that of the expert group was disagreement (2.54). The agreement level of the occupants with the Y5 association was partial agreement (2.94), and that of the expert group was partially agreement (2.755). The agreement level of the occupants with the B2 association was partial agreement (2.94), and that of the expert group was partial agreement (2.755). The agreement level of the occupants with the O1 association was agreement (3.495), and that of the expert group was partial agreement (3.135). The agreement level of the occupants with the O3 association was agreement (3.475), and that of the expert group was partial agreement (2.945). The agreement level of the occupants with the V6 association was partial agreement (3.265), and that of the expert group was partial agreement (2.84). The agreement level of the occupants with the R5 association was partial agreement (3.38), and that of the expert group was agreement (3.465). Arithmetic mean, standard deviation, and standard error for all 2nd factor associations in the survey are presented in Table 10, and the findings on the agreement levels of both groups for each association are presented in Table 11. Thus, the analysis of the difference between the agreement levels with the 2nd factor group color associations in both groups revealed that there was a difference between the agreement levels with GS3, GS4, P4, B2, O1, O3, and V6 associations (p < 0.05). The review of the F values demonstrated that the highest difference was in GS3 association, followed by O3 and P4.

Color associations in the 3rd factor group
The agreement levels of the expert and occupant groups with the 3rd factor group color associations are presented in Table 12. Thus, the agreement level of the occupants with the 3rd factor group association R9 was agreement (3.545), and that of the expert group was partial agreement (3.285). The agreement level of the occupants with the W7 association was partial agreement (3.19), and that of the expert group was partial agreement (2.725). The agreement level of the occupants with the W8 association was partial agreement (2.785), and that of the expert group was partial agreement (2.7). The agreement level of the occupants with the G1 association was agreement (3.96), and that of the expert group was agreement (3.655). The agreement level of the occupants with the G2 was partial agreement (3.335), and that of the expert group was partial agreement (3.005). The agreement level of the occupants with the G6 association was agreement (4.12), and that of the expert group as agreement (3.805). The agreement level of the occupants with the B8 association was agreement (3.535), and that of the expert group was partial agreement (2.84). The agreement level of the occupants with the B4 association was agreement (3.495), and that of the expert group was partial agreement (3.005). The agreement level of the occupants with the PK1 association was agreement (3.625), and that of the expert group was partial agreement (3.125). The agreement level of the occupants with the O2 association was agreement (3.615), and that of the expert group was agreement (3.58). The agreement level of the occupants with the O4 association was partial agreement (3.25), and that of the expert group was partial agreement (2.7). Arithmetic mean, standard deviation, and standard error for all 3rd factor group associations in the survey are presented in Table 12, and the findings on the agreement levels of both groups for each association are presented in Table 13. Thus, the analysis of the difference between the agreement levels with the 3rd factor group color associations in both groups revealed that there was a difference between the agreement levels with R9, W7, G1, G2, G6, B8, B4, PK1, and O4 associations (p < 0.05). The review of the F values demonstrated that the highest difference was in B8 association, followed by O4 and PK1.
After the determination of the data on associations in each factor group, one-way analysis of variance was conducted to determine whether there was a difference between the means for the 3 factor groups (Table 14).  It was determined that there was a significant difference between the mean occupant and expert group scores in 3 factors at 0.05 significance level (p = 0.000) ( Table 15).
The direction and significance of the correlations between the factors were determined with the correlation analysis, and the effects of the factors on others were determined with multiple regression analysis (Table 16). R 2 was calculated as 0.230. All variables were regressed with the standard method. The analysis was suitable for the linear model (F = 39.510; p < 0.01), and there was no autocorrelation (Table 17).
It was statistically demonstrated that there was a significant positive correlation between the 1st factor and agreement level and a significant negative correlation between the 2nd and 3rd factors and agreement level. The factors that explained the increase in the agreement level the most were the 1st factor (ß = 0.332; p = 0.000), 2nd factor (ß = − 0.274; p = 0.000), and 3rd factor (ß = − 0.157; p = 0.001), respectively (Table 17).

Conclusion
In the study, initially, all associations determined in the literature review were reduced and categorized with the adequate statistical tests and expert assessment. Thus, the color associations that were used in the study were determined. The determined color associations were classified as 3 factors groups as a result of statistical analysis. The following first group associations were determined: The color blue was associated with separation and loyalty. Green was associated with ambition. Purple was associated with rarity, and white was associated with nobility and cleanliness. Gray-silver was associated with balance, harmony, and softness. Black was associated with loneliness, tranquility, worry, anxiety, and fear. And finally, pink was associated with friendliness. Similarly, the 2nd factor group color associations determined in the study were as follows: Gray-silver was associated with calmness. The purple color was associated with divinity, yellow was associated with weakness, blue was associated with peace, orange was associated with happiness and joy, the variegated colors were associated with tempting, and finally, the red color was associated with higher blood pressure. The colors in the 3rd factor group included red that was associated with stopping, white that was associated with orderliness and romanticism, and green that was associated with friendliness, silence, focus, and jealousy. Other colors included blue that was associated with distance, pink that was associated with warmth, and orange that was associated with energy and socialization. The agreement levels of the participants with these associations in the three factor groups were partial. A significant difference was determined between the agreement levels of both groups with these associations. It was suggested that the difference was due to socio-demographic differences and the perceptions of the occupant and expert groups.
In a study on cultural associations of plants, Güneroğlu et al. (2018) focused on plant colors and their cultural associations. In the study, the plant associations in Japanese, Indian, and Turkish cultures were investigated (Güneroğlu et al. 2018). Aslan et al. (2015) reported that humans are in constant interaction with their spaces and they perceive space through the senses. They emphasized that perception constitutes a large part of visual perception based on the visual sense, and the concepts of form, color, material, texture and light are design elements that affect the visual perception of the space. They also stated that color contributes to spatial perception through the expression of the spatial functions (Aslan et al. 2015). In a study titled "Analysis of Color Impact in Planting Design: A Case Study of Ankara Milli Egemenlik Park," Çorbacı et al. (2018) claimed that "in landscape architecture projects, color is important not only for planting designs but also for non-living objects and structural designs (water, soil, accessory elements, etc.). The examination of the success and failure of the existing green areas with structural and herbal designs after use will shed light on the correct use of colors in landscape design." Furthermore, they stated that "landscape architects will have a direct influence on the psychology of the users of the space by choosing the plant taxon which can show the correct color that will complement the design, the correct timing, quantity, and density of the plant to show that color. In this context, opportunities will be provided within the scope of this study through the mentioned methods allowing the projects to be analyzed and evaluated in terms of color usage, before being applied."