Electromotive Force Generated in All Materials under Temperature Difference

In this research, we investigate the thermoelectric effects of general materials. The results of this showed that an electromotive force was generated under a temperature difference between two points in materials. As no material has innite electric resistance, an electromotive force is expected to be generated under a temperature difference in all materials. In conclusion, the thermoelectric effect generates an electromotive force. This electromotive force causes an electric current to ow, thereby generating a magnetic eld. This magnetic eld generates the Earth's magnetic eld, triboelectricity, sunspots, and kinetic energy of celestial bodies. This temperature differential electromotive force also generates lightning and creates an ionosphere that reects radio waves.


Introduction
The thermoelectric effect of two metals was discovered by T. J. Seebeck,a German physicist. 1 This research shows the thermoelectric effect of non-metallic materials (e.g. soil and water) in which an electromotive force is generated under a temperature difference through the migration of electric charges. An electromotive force (voltage) was generated in all the materials used in the experiment under a temperature difference. As no material with in nite electric resistance exists, an electromotive force is expected to be generated under a temperature difference in all materials. Under a temperature difference between two points of all materials, an electromotive force is generated because electric charges migrate.
This electromotive force causes an electric current to ow, thereby generating a magnetic eld (Framing's left-hand rule).
Such a thermoelectric effect of material explains the induction of static electricity by friction, the generation of geomagnetic elds, the electromotive force of lightning, the release of electromotive force through spark discharge between clouds, the generation of sunspots and the relevant magnetic eld, the reverse rotation of planets, the release of electromotive force through spark discharges in volcano eruptions, the release of electromotive force through spark discharge in large res, the generation of electromotive force through spark discharge in nuclear explosions and the formation of the ionosphere that re ects electromagnetic waves.
Materials generate an electromotive force in the presence of a temperature difference between two points. The electromotive force is not easily measured in materials having a high electric resistance where the charge transfer is minimal or in materials having almost no electric resistance, such as metals, where the positive (+) charges and the negative (−) charges are immediately offset. However, despite the difference in magnitude, all materials generate an electromotive force in the presence of a temperature difference.
Electromotive Force Generated In Materials Under A Temperature Difference Under a temperature difference between two points of all materials, an electromotive force (voltage) is generated as electric charges are migrated.
This electromotive force causes an electric current to ow and generate a magnetic eld (Framing's lefthand rule).
In this research, a temperature difference was generated between two points of a material such as soil and the potential difference was measured.
The materials that are charged positively on the high-temperature side are de ned as "positive temperature polarity materials" and those that are charged negatively on the high-temperature side are de ned as "negative temperature polarity materials." For example, water and iron, are positively charged on the high-temperature side and negatively charged on the low-temperature side. (Table 1).
Contrarily, the negative temperature polarity materials, such as soil and ice, are negatively charged on the high-temperature side and positively charged on the low-temperature side (Table 1).
Water, a positive temperature polarity material, is positively charged on the high-temperature side and negatively charged on the low-temperature side. However, when water is frozen and turns into ice below 0°C, it becomes a negative temperature polarity material with the reversal of the charge polarity.
Because water and ice have opposite temperature polarities, when the cloud (water) is turned into ice particles (hail), charges are transferred owing to the reversal of charge polarity.
The reversal of the charge polarity also occurs when ice particles melt and turn into rain (water). This is related to the occurrence of lightning.
This shows that an electromotive force is always generated if there is a temperature difference, even in non-metallic materials. As a result of this experiment, negative temperature polarity materials were soil, ice and stainless steel (Table 1). However, Ice had a negative temperature polarity (Table 1).

Positive temperature polarity experiment
This seems to be related to the bonding structure of H 2 O {(a) Water, (b) Water obtained by melting snow, and (c) Snow and Ice}. Table 1 shows the experimental results of measuring the magnitude and direction of the electromotive force according to 16 types of temperature difference.

Electromotive force measurements
As shown in Table 1, in the case of soil measurement, the high-temperature side was charged negatively and the low-temperature side was charged positively. Therefore, soil is a negative temperature polarity material.
Ice had a negative temperature polarity (Table 1) According to the results of this research, it is argued that frictional electricity is the static electricity caused by electron migration owing to temperature difference, as the temperature of the portion subject to friction is increased by the heat generated owing to the friction.Therefore, it is necessary to revise school textbooks.

The Cause Of The Strong Magnetic Field When Sunspots Occur
The temperature of the sunspot part of the sun is approximately 3000°C-4000°C, and the temperature around it is approximately 6000°C. 3 The temperature difference between the sunspot and the surrounding area is "2000°C-3000°C." Therefore, when a sunspot occurs, a large amount of current ows around the sunspot and a strong magnetic eld is generated.

Evidence That A Temperature Difference Creates An Electromotive Force
The following is evidence that a temperature difference creates an electromotive force.
1. When a sunspot occurs, a strong magnetic eld is generated due to the temperature difference.
2. Lightning occurs when there is a large temperature difference in the atmosphere.
3. Static electricity of triboelectric generated by frictional heat.
4. Earth's magnetic eld caused by global temperature difference. 5. Spark emission owing to temperature difference during volcanic eruption.
. In case of a large re, sparks are generated owing to the temperature difference.
7. In case of nuclear explosion, spark discharge owing to temperature difference.

Discussion
The results of this research show that an electromotive force was generated under a temperature difference between two points, even in non-metallic materials.
It is assumed that the kinetic energy of a celestial body also arises from the temperature difference.
When current generated due to temperature differences in celestial bodies ows through the celestial bodies, a magnetic eld is generated across these bodies, and this magnetic eld produces a force perpendicular both to that eld and to the direction of the current ow (i.e. they are mutually perpendicular) [Fleming's left-hand rule: electric motor's principle].
The celestial body rotates due to the force of the magnetic eld, and as it rotates, it functions as a generator (Fleming's right-hand rule), which continues to rotate as if the motor and generator are combined. Therefore, the kinetic energy of a celestial body is also generated by the temperature difference between its two points.
The results of this research show that an electromotive force was generated under a temperature difference between two points, even in non-metallic materials (e.g. soil and water).
This suggests that an electromotive force is generated by the migration of charges in the presence of a temperature different in materials.
Since there is no material of which electric resistance is in nite, an electromotive force is expected to be generated in the presence of a temperature difference between two points in all materials.
Data Availability: All data generated or analysed during this study are included in this manuscript.

Declarations
Acknowledgement: I thank the reviewers for reviewing this paper. I would like to thank my wife, Yeong-suk Lee, who helped with the temperature difference experiment, and my daughter, Ji-hyeon Song, who reviewed the proofreading of the thesis. As a retired Meteorological Agency, I am submitting this thesis as an individual. Therefore, we have no interest in any institution or company. The expenses are planned to be spent with personal funds.

Figure 3
Temperature difference experiment on positive temperature polar materials.
Page 9/9 Figure 4 Comparison of current theory with this research.

Supplementary Files
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