In today’s media- and technology-rich environment, the internet has become the most widely used medium among the young generation, particularly among teenagers, commonly known as ‘teens’. Even at the beginning of the widespread usage of the internet, teens used it for more hours than adults [1]. Nowadays, teens have been born and raised in a digital era and hence are also recognised as ‘digital natives’ [2]. Online virtual environments stimulate teens’ self-presentation and identity experiments, particularly through the sharing of their self-created content, posts and pictures online [3]. For this reason, they are considered more digitally literate than their parents – leading to a generation gap [4–6]. The increased use of the internet amongst teens, their concerns about online identity and privacy, as well as their strong association with peers, alongside reduced communication with parents, enhance their susceptibility to online risks [7].
Teenage years are coupled with developmental changes. Teens mostly devote their time online to using self-selected devices for recreational and social activities without any parental supervision [8]. These unsupervised activities have a long-lasting impact on them; therefore, parents apply multiple dimensions of mediation, particularly to promote positive outcomes amongst teens. Internet use has mounted over the past two decades with free web browsing, social networking, online shopping, gaming and instant messaging. Furthermore, the introduction of smartphones and multiple ‘apps’ has also fuelled internet use [9]. The internet provides numerous benefits in the areas of information, edutainment and socialisation; nonetheless, it also exposes users to a unique set of online risks, such as privacy invasion, cyberbullying, and exposure to violent, hateful or inappropriate material or contacts [5]. Moreover, the effects of online risks, such as pornography, on teens and the adverse impact on youths’ self-esteem is a matter of concern [10]. Therefore, high sensitivity and concern among parents about teens’ risks related to online addiction and victimisation are needed in order to protect teens from the negative aspects of internet use and to avoid harm [9].
Given this context, the concept of parental mediation (PM) has emerged. Parental internet mediation acknowledges that parents actively manage and regulate their children’s internet use [11], while mitigating its negative effects amongst teens [12]. Primarily, the notion of PM originated in media studies, especially in the areas of television (TV) and video games, to comprehend the effects of media content on teens’ or children’s behaviour [13]. Researchers have demonstrated that young audiences adopt certain behaviours that are presented in TV and video games, unless parents mediate [14]. Hence, parental involvement encourages the potential for positive outcomes, while also effectively neutralising the negative effects of the internet [15].
Previous studies on TV and video games have categorised PM into three dimensions: instructive or active, restrictive and co-use mediation [16–18]. Furthermore, with the evolution of the internet and digital devices, e.g. smartphones and tablets, different researchers have strengthened and refined the concept of PM over a period of time. Recently, Livingstone et al. [19] recognised that digital devices and the internet, being more technologically complex, personalised and portable than previous technology, were difficult for parents to manage. Hence, five dimensions of parental internet mediation were developed, keeping in view the specific attributes of the internet. These are: 1) active co-use or instructive mediation, where parents encourage, share and mutually discuss; 2) active mediation of internet safety, where parents guide teens towards safer online practices; 3) restrictive mediation, where parents set rules and regulations; 4) monitoring, where parents check the available record afterwards; and 5) technical mediation, where parents use software or control mechanisms to restrict, filter or monitor online activities [20].
Previous research suggests that parental preferences for applying these various dimensions of PM are subject to multiple predictors, such as teens’ online addiction and parents’ own characteristics, including education, income and digital skills [21]. Moreover, parents’ beliefs about risk and response appraisal, as well as their effect on teens, also determine the various dimensions of PM.
Giving due importance to parental beliefs and inputs, the theoretical foundations of this research lie in Protection Motivation Theory (PMT) to aid in understanding PM-related predictors. PMT postulates that one’s intention to adopt protective behaviour is linked to how individuals process threats and cope with adverse circumstances [22]. Under the ambit of this research, PMT suggests that parents’ own perceptions of threat and coping appraisal could be the predictors of PM. In threat appraisal, severity indicates the seriousness of an online risk, while susceptibility refers to vulnerability towards these risks. Furthermore, threat appraisal also considers teens’ (excessive) internet use. For instance, parents who found online addiction amongst their teens, perceived the online risks to be more severe and believed their teens to be more susceptible to them, applied mediation. Under coping appraisal, response efficacy denotes effectiveness in preventing risks, while self-efficacy indicates the individual’s ability to achieve optimal online safety behaviour. For example, parents mediate more often if they believe that their involvement enables teens to effectively manage the online risks and adopt online protection behaviour. Coping appraisal also highlights parents’ own digital skills, which help them to evaluate their teens’ responses and self-efficacy. Hence, taken altogether, PMT proposes that PM could be considered as self-protective behaviour against adversity and online risks [23, 24]. This adversity could be overcome through teens’ higher self-esteem and resilience. Here, resilience is defined as a strength-based and positive outcome in the face of online risks or challenges [25].
Parental internet mediation is the concern of all parents and societies with the widespread use of digital technologies, regardless of background or culture. However, although there are multiple PM-related studies available for western societies and cultures [26], there is a dearth of comparable literature for eastern societies and cultures, such as Pakistan. Pakistan ranks in the top 10 among countries within the Asian region with respect to digital growth [27]. Presently, there are more than 44 million internet users in the country [28]. Amongst them, a majority of young people and teens surf the internet for a minimum of two hours a day, largely gaining access on tablets and smartphones [29]. There is a substantial cultural difference between eastern (Asian) and western parenting practices [30]. Moreover, the notion of parental internet mediation is quite new in the developing country of Pakistan. Notwithstanding teens’ increased internet use or addiction, and their exposure to online risks, little is yet known about parental internet mediation or the factors influencing it in local settings.
Given the context above, this research is an attempt to fill the gap in the existing literature, and seeks to understand the varied dimensions of parental mediation to regulate teens’ use of the internet and their predictors in the district of Lahore (Pakistan), as illustrated in Fig. 1. These predictors include socio-demographic and teens’ related characteristics, teens’ internet addiction, parents’ own digital skills, parents’ assessments of threat and coping appraisals, as well as the effects of PM amongst teens, particularly in nurturing self-esteem and resilience.