Rethinking of The Zone of Proximal Development: The Role of Parental Engagement in Children's Language Learning Skills

The present research investigated the ecacy of parent engagement in children's learning and achievement in the English language. It is emphasized that adult guidance in foreign language learning cannot necessarily play an inuential role in children's zone of proximal development (ZPD). It seems that parents or adults should enjoy relative linguistic skills, while in Vygotsky's theory, there is ambiguity over some concepts such as adult guidance characteristics. The statistical society consisted of sixty Iranian children ranging from 9 to 10, divided randomly into three groups of experimental 1, experimental 2, and control. Children received face-to-face education while Telegram was used for their parents. The research results showed signicantly more learning, skill training, parent involvement, and shared activities between children and parents in the experimental1 and experimental 2 groups compared to the control group. Moreover, a positive correlation is found between parent involvement and children's achievement in all three groups. The results also showed that parents' involvement and teaching involvement, and language skills had the most inuence on parents' involvement. Furthermore, teaching engagement to parents had the most signicant inuence on children's activities. In addition, children's activities and language skill training had the most inuence on their learning.


Introduction
Iranian families are highly interested in learning the English language by their children, while most do not even know a dozen English words.
Besides, various institutes try to teach the English language to children for the considerable money they receive.
However, they are not that successful in their job. Such lack of success can be due to different reasons, including parents' unfamiliarity with the English language. Children face many words only in the classroom, and there is no environment available outside the classroom for them to use or listen to those words! They can use the knowledge or words they have learned neither outside nor inside the house! The language spoken in the environment is entirely their mother tongue. There is no opportunity for the child to use and consolidate his/her learnings even though one of the essential elements in learning a foreign language is presence and attendance in an environment to use the target language and interact and communicate through it (Sargsyan & Kurghinyan, 2016).
We found out that the home environment and the family are the easiest to manipulate and make positive changes. In other words, parents' engagement in their children's language learning can be changed and increased in different aspects. It should be noted that over 70 percent of a child's waking time is spent at home and outside school (Michigan Department of Education 2001). Rieber & Robinson (2004) argues that humans are encompassed by their family members and change and develop under the in uence of the culture governing the family and environment they live in. As Kemal Tekin (2008), Ph.D. states, a child's early learnings occur through interaction with family. Consequent interactions can also lead to learning and change. Therefore, if children can receive help from parents in learning and exercising, they will have increased motivation to learn besides the fact that the environment will be more suitable for learning due to parents' engagement. Ma Xiaoyi (2017) states that parents' effective engagement can be constructive when a child is trying to learn a foreign language.
Different studies ( Forey et al. (2016) argued that there was not much information on parent involvement and the way they support foreign language learning in children. In addition, there are more specialized studies on the in uence of parents' engagement in learning English as a foreign language, each dealing with one or several formats through which parents participate and in uence learning. For example, Ma Xiaoyi2017 indicated in his M.A. thesis that parents' engagement in interaction with school can help improve the English language in 6-12-year-old students. Nutbrown, Hannon, and Morgan (2005) argued that parents had four critical roles in developing a child's language learning: O, R, I, M standing for opportunities, recognition, interaction, and model, respectively. Goodall (2013) introduces a model for effective parental engagement based on six elements that include authoritative parenting (which underpins the other ve elements) and the need to begin engagement early, to take an active (rather than passive or reactive) interest in the child's learning, to continue this interest throughout the child's life, to have high educational aspirations and to stay engaged.
Moreover, parental engagement is de ned in different ways. As Ireland (2014) states, parental engagement refers to the amount of engagement a parent has regarding schooling and her child's life. Redding (1992) states that parental engagement is related to parental engagement in learning. That engagement is neither restricted only within the home environment nor is limited to a speci c learning exercise. Habit formation and attitude development, which create opportunities for children for academic learning, are the essential components of that engagement. Epstein (2010) suggested six types of interactions that can help family and school in uence children's learning. Fishel & Ramirez (2005) argue that parental engagement is generally referred to as parents' engagement in their children's education to promote their academic and social success.

Theoretical framework:
It can be claimed that Vygotsky's learning theory has turned into the most critical and popular theoretical framework for studies dealing with parents' interaction with children in the learning process (Kucirkova, Sheehy & Messer,2015).
In his famous theory, Vygotsky emphasizes a child's interaction and communication with an adult or capable peer and believes that through this interaction, guidance, and support, a child faces a problem-solving situation and increases the available knowledge level. He also believes that social and cultural factors in uence children's development and learning and promote their capabilities. In Vygotsky's perspective, every child has a zone of proximal development. In other words, there is an area called Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) between what a child learns and what he/she can learn with the help and support of an adult or guide (Vygotsky, 1978). Therefore, early learnings occur in this area. The concept of ZPD emphasizes the social aspects of learning. It shows that an adult or competent individual in the learning process can effectively help the learner ( Prior & Gerard, 2007). Such interaction can even lead to advanced thinking skills in the child (Lawton,2017).In fact, in Vygotsky's point of view, interaction is based on cooperation and the basis of learning and development. Ailincai, Gabillon, Vernaudon, Paia& Alì. (2016) argue that learning occurs better and more through interaction and cooperation in the zone of proximal development.
Statement of the problem Both Vygotsky's theory and the discourse and de nitions presented above evidently show the importance of the role of parental engagement in their children's learning achievement, and it is emphasized that parental engagement can be represented in different ways and comprises different factors. However, Iranian parents cannot have an appropriate engagement in learning the English language of their children due to unfamiliarity with the English language. They play the role of a driver to transfer their children to language institutes, and at best, they encourage their children to learn a language.
Kavanagh and Hickey (2013) argued that one of the most critical obstacles to parental engagement in foreign language learning is parents' unfamiliarity with the target language. They ascertain that when parents do not have enough skills in the related language, they will not have enough self-con dence to help their children. In contrast, Brannon and Dauksas (2012) emphasized that parents' language skills considerably in uence their children's success since by using them, parents can help their children through different activities.
Yusup & Mansora (2016) argued that educated parents who learn the English language are more motivated to help their children and provide more substantial support for their children's learning activities. However, unfortunately, a little search in resources reveals that one can hardly nd studies on the in uence of parents' education on the degree of their engagement despite the importance of parental engagement in the education and learning of their children.
Therefore, the present research tried to teach the English language to parents via social networks to make positive changes in their engagement in the learning process. As stated in Vygotsky's theory, an adult guiding the child in the learning process is essential. It is noteworthy that today social networks are widely used by adults. Moreover, the interaction being one of the elements of learning a foreign language is rarely accessible in Iran's environment, and families are not familiar with the English language. So the interaction between children and parents in the language learning process through the English language can in uence the degree of learning and help them provide the zone of proximal development based on interactions and social relationships between parents and capable peers and children.

Methods
A quasi-experimental procedure with a pretest-posttest design was implemented to identify the relationships of the intervention, parents' training for participation, by comparing treated units (kids) to control units. The purpose was to recognize the relationships among language teaching, parents' training for participation, kids' activities, parents' involvement, and learning level in the three groups. Thus, a comparison was made between two groups of kids and a control group of kids that their parents received no training. The aim was to evaluate performances between the groups.

Participants
The Statistical Population comprises 60 Iranian children between 9 and 10 and their parents who neither are familiar with the English language at all (they know just several English words). The 60 children were divided into two groups of experimental 1 and experimental 2 and the control group.

The Experimental Group
The experimental group 1 consisted of 20 children learning English through face-to-face classroom. At the same time, their parents were taught through Telegram (the most favorite social network in Iran) with the use of educational videos and short texts. The parents of this group participated in a 6_hour workshop on how to involve in the program.
The experimental group 2 consisted of 20 children learning English through face-to-face classrooms. Their parents only participated in the six-hour workshop mentioned above and were not taught the English language at all.

The Control Group
In the control group, the children were just taught the English language and their parents neither learned English nor participated in the workshop on how to involve.

The intervention
The intervention in the experimental and the control group as mentioned earlier, both experimental groups participated separately in a workshop before the program. They were taught the methods and ways of involvement and were encouraged to participate more actively in their children's learning process. They were told that they can help their children in story reading, doing the exercises, memorizing words, reading English poems and watching animated cartoons.

The instruments
A pretest and a posttest were conducted. Level of students' learning: The scale includes an item on a four-degree spectrum, from 1 (weak) to 4 (excellent).
Language teaching: The experimental groups were received language teaching to participate the in the learning process of their kids.
Analytical procedure The statistical procedures employed to answer the research questions in chronological order, are: First question: How will parents' training affect their children's participation, actions, and learning levels?
Table number 2 shows the mean and standard deviation for some variables, including students' learning, parents' participation, and joint activities of parents and students. Descriptive statistics show that the mean scores related to the students' level of skills and learning (3.70) and the parents' participation level (3.49) were higher in the rst experimental group than the second group and the control group. In addition, in the rst experimental group, the mean of activities including assignments (14.55), writings (52.75), reading stories (19.99), poetry (4.25), and cartoon comprehension (11.55) was more than the second experimental group and also the control group. Furthermore, the second experiment group had higher means in the three variables above than the control group. Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA) was used in order to review training of parents concerning their participation, the amount it had affected their participation, actions, and learning level of students, and also by regarding speci c training for parents (participatory and verbal) that is in complete contrast to the rst and second experimental group and control group.
In this test, related variables should have a meaningful relationship. For example, the dependent variables of parents' participation, mutual actions (parents and students), and learning level of students have theoretically close relationships with each other by means that it is expected to increase parents' participation, actions, and learning level students increase. Before applying the MANOVA test, the test assumptions were examined by Box 1 , Levene 2 , Pillai's  Table  2 shows the level of signi cance (p = 0.05), which indicates that the equality condition of the variance-covariance matrix is well observed (P <0.05, F = 2.069).  Results showed that among the three experimented groups, there was a meaningful distinction at least among one of the below variables: learning level, skill learning of students, parents' participation, and joint actions of parents and students (130/87 F= 05/0P≤ ).  Now post hoc test is used for understanding if there are differences among these groups. In this study, an LSD followup test was used to measure the issue mentioned above (see below table), which is neutral compared to the sample size of the various groups and has the prerequisite for equality of variances. If the difference between the two groups is more than the constant value of LSD, then there is a signi cant difference between the two groups.
It is important to note two points in performing this test: rst, this test should be used when the value of the F is signi cant in the analysis table of the variance; the second number of groups should not be so many. Therefore, both of these preconditions are true in this research. Second, according to the results of the post hoc test between the experimental group 1 and 2, the experimental group No. 1 and the control group, and the experimental group 2 and the control group, variables' mean of the level of learning and student skills, parental participation, and joint activities of parents and children have signi cant differences (P0.05). Also, for the lower and upper bound mark, the mean of these three variables was higher for experimental group 1 than control group 2 and control group. In addition, both groups 1 and 2 had a greater mean than the control group. Pearson correlation analysis was used to examine the relationship between the two variables of parental participation and the success rate of children in learning foreign languages by considering these two variables are quantitative. According to this table, the Correlation between the two variables of parents' participation and the success rate of children's learning for the rst group was equal to 0/519, for the second group was 0/391. For the third group, it was 0/488, which is This rate is signi cant concerning the error level of 5 to 10% (P <0.05, P <0.1).
Therefore, it can be concluded that there is a moderate correlation between the two variables of parental participation and the success level of their children's learning in all three groups. Furthermore, it shows a direct and positive relationship meaning that if the parental participation level increases, the success level of students in learning foreign language skills will also improve. The Partial Least Square (PLS) approach as the second generation of structural equation modeling methods has created new insights for behavioral sciences researchers. Through presenting the latent variable modeling approach, it was concluded that by calculating the measurement error in scales that reduce the estimated relationship, more exact estimates could be obtained on interaction effects.
Two models are examined in PLS: outer models inner models The outer model is similar to measuring the con rmatory factor analysis (CFA), and the inner model is similar to path analysis in structural equation modeling. After the outer model test, the inner model indicates the relationship between latent variables in the research. The model research hypotheses can be investigated through the inner model. The PLS analysis is performed in the XLSTAT environment.

PLS model estimation
The present research model is as follows: yt=fX1, X2,...Xn Y, the dependent variables, and X, the explanatory variables, are the factors that in uence this variable.

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The dependent and explanatory variables in the present research are as follows:  A summary of the PLS model results in the rst stage is presented in the following. This graph shows the Correlation between dependent variables and estimated independent variables. These variables are correlated less whenever the axes approach the center of the circle.
As observed, there is a strong positive correlation between the dependent variables (blue points) and the independent variables.
The following table shows the correlation matrix between explanatory variables of the model and each of the estimated components. As observed, there is a relatively strong correlation between the dependent variables of X3 (degree of parent involvement), Y1 (foreign language learning level), and Y2 (child activities) and the rst component, namely 0.972, 0.593, and 0.960, respectively.

Regression model estimation
After recognizing essential variables in uencing the degree of parent involvement, foreign language learning level, and child activities, regression models are speci ed to determine the in uence of independent variables on the dependent variable. To do the analyses related to the linear regressions, SAS was utilized. Since three different groups (experimental1, experimental2, and control) were investigated in the present study, the in uence of the independent variables on the dependent variables was calculated within several separate regression models while considering variables available in each experiment for groups 1 and 2. A summary of the results is presented in the following  Notes: The numbers in parentheses are standardized regression coe cients; ns P > 0.05; * P ≤ 0.05; ** P ≤ 0.01 In order to recognize the most important variables in uencing the learning level in students, standard regression coe cients related to the relationship between each pair of the research variables are presented in the following graph. Results showed that from among variables explaining the degree of parent involvement, the variable of teaching engagement to parents was the most effective (P<0.001; β=0.87), followed by the variable of language teaching (P<0.001; β=0.81). Moreover, the results showed that from among variables predicting child activities, teaching engagement to parents (engagement <0.001; β=0.95), parent involvement (parent involvement<0.001; β=0.93), language teaching (Language teaching <0.001; β=0.69) had the most in uence respectively.
It was interesting that the direct in uence of language teaching (β=0.69) on child activities was less than its indirect in uence of parent involvement degree (parent involvement) (0.81×0.93=0.75). Compared to the direct in uence, language teaching through the variable of parent involvement degree had more in uence on child activities. Finally, parent involvement (parent involvement <0.001; β=0.65), child activities (activities<0.001; β=0.58), and language teaching (language teaching<0.001; β=0.50) had the most in uence on the dependent variable of foreign language learning level respectively.
Question number 4. What kind of relationship is there among students' and parents' actions with the level of foreign language learning in three experimental groups?
Pearson correlation test was used to answer this question. According to the table below, the correlation coe cient ® between the two variables of parental participation and the success rate of students learning for the rst group was 0.384, which is signi cant at a 10% error level (P-value <0.1). Therefore, it can be concluded that there is a weak correlation between students' and their parents' activities and learning in the rst group. Furthermore, this is a direct and positive relationship, meaning that the higher the parents' and students' activities, the greater the students' success in learning foreign language skills. However, this relationship was not signi cant for the second experimental and control groups (P-value> 0.5).

Discussion
The present research investigated the e cacy of parent involvement in children's learning and achievement in the English language , and it is emphasized that adult guidance in foreign language learning cannot necessarily play an in uential role in children's zone of proximal development (ZPD). We believe that in Vygotsky's theory , there is ambiguity over some concepts such as adult guidance characteristics , and it is not evident what parents can play more effective roles in ZPD. The theory centers on the relationship and interaction between the adult and the child.
However, foreign language learning seems to require adults to have adequate characteristics and conditions such as language knowledge and skills, be interested in involvement , and be aware of how to involve. The rst research question is how parent education on the area of involvement can in uence their involvement, activities , and the degree of learning in children. Results showed that there is a signi cant difference between experimental groups (1 and 2) and the control group in the degree of children learning and skill training, degree of involvement in parents , and the shared activities between parents and children. Moreover, the descriptive statistics analysis indicated that experimental group 1 achieved higher mean scores for the degree of learning and skill training in students, the degree of parents' involvement , and the shared activities between parents and children as compared to the experimental 2 groups and the control group. Furthermore, the experimental two obtained higher mean scores for the three mentioned variables than the control group. The results showed that educating parents on how to involve is effective and in uences their quality and quantity of involvement. Therefore, education of required skills to parents should not be ignored in the process of teaching and learning in children's eld especially because social networks can be powerful and effective instruments for the relationship between parents and parent-teacher association members and provide the necessary education to parents. Many studies support the present research results, declaring that parent involvement results in more achievement in learning for students and in uences their social and emotional advance and their communicative and interactive skills (Al-Mahrooqi, Denman, & Maamari, 2016). Erol Poyraz (2017) argued that it could be regarded as a critical educational source if parent involvement is effectively and correctly used in childhood education. income, occupation, socio-economic situation, education and attitude towards involvement. However, there is no research on the effectiveness of teaching how to involve parents except for Cohen, Schünke, Vogel& Anders (2020), who investigated the in uence of Support Program Chancenreich on the degree of parent's involvement and preschool children's linguistic development. However, their research topic is so different from the current research topic.
Their research ndings showed that if parents are trained on involvement and interaction with children, the out-ofschool environment and home can be enriched. As a result, better results can be attained regarding the children's development and skill level. Therefore, it seems that Vygotsky's Adult Guidance should be revised, especially when it comes to learning subject matters of which the adults have no knowledge and skills or their knowledge or skill is not adequate.
The second question showed a direct and positive relationship between the degree of parent involvement and the degree of learning achievement in children. In other words, the more parent involvement, the more outstanding the students' achievement in learning foreign language skills. According to Nord (1998), parent involvement plays an essential role in students' learning and achievement. Đurišić and Bunijevac (2017) stated that schools should try to enter parents into the educational process since it will promote achievement in students and increase satisfaction in parents and teachers and improve the school climate. Hosseinpour, Yazdani& Yarahmadi (2015) investigated the factors in uential in Children's English Achievement Test scores and found parent involvement vital. They did not, however, explained the exact representations of involvement.
The third research question investigated the relationship between variables in three groups and tried to nd which variable had the most in uence on learning in children. Results showed that parents' teaching engagement and linguistic skills had the most in uence on their involvement, respectively. In addition, teaching engagement to parents had the most in uence on child activity, followed by the variables of parent involvement and linguistic teaching skills. Finally, the results also showed that child activity and linguistic teaching skills in uenced children's learning degree. It can be concluded from the results that parent involvement can be in uenced by different factors such as linguistic skills and skills related to how to involve emphasized in the present research, a pointless dealt with in other studies. Nevertheless, Bubić & Tošić (2016) argued that parent involvement could be in uenced by different factors, including the critical factor of understanding the importance of involvement in the learning process by parents. They referred to examples such as beliefs and understanding the importance of involvement in children's homework and interaction with parent-teacher association members.
Therefore, it seems that such understanding can be increased through teaching parent involvement skills, actually dealt with in the present research.
Accordingly, Colbert (1996) believed that some schools should make a special effort to help low-income families get involved because many families may have economic di culties. In addition, some have extraverted or introverted personalities.
However, Forey, Besser & Sampson (2016) showed that teaching engagement to parents was not effective in reading aloud. There was not a positive attitude in parents in this area. Furthermore, there was a cultural difference between the parents from Hong Kong and the western parents in getting involved. Therefore, the discourse of adult guidance seems to be very complicated and under the in uence of different factors that differ from one country and culture to another.

Research limitations and future studies
The present research concentrated on the in uence of teaching engagement and linguistic skills to parents on teaching the English language to children. Moreover, it did not deal with teaching methodology in the classrooms and its in uence on learning degree in children. In addition, it was just the relationship between parents and their children that was dealt with in the present research, and the relationship between parents and parent-teacher association members and teachers is open to further research. Moreover, parents are taught through social networks in the present research. Therefore, further research can be conducted on a group of parents taught via face-to-face education, and nally, a comparison can be made between the two groups. Besides, their satisfaction with the face-toface course can be compared with that in learning through social networks.
Furthermore, the present research was conducted on 60 children between 9 to 10. Further research can be performed on children of different ages. Moreover, the research addressed foreign language teaching. So, a study can be implemented on other subjects such as teaching mathematics. In addition, independent research can be conducted to extract parents' attitudes towards involvement and the necessity of acquiring knowledge to help children.

Conclusion
Although Vygotsky's learning theory is the most essential and popular theoretical framework for studies on parentchild interaction in the learning process, some concepts are ambiguous such as adult guidance. It is not clari ed what kind of parents can play more effective roles in this area, what characteristics the adults should have, or whether these characteristics should be the same in all discussions and concepts. The present research showed that in learning foreign languages, adults should have language skills, be interested in involvement in the learning process, and have learned how to involve. Therefore, based on the above, it can be concluded that Vygotsky's theory should be reviewed or some characteristics for adult guidance be speci ed to reach the goals Vygotsky targeted in the ZPD.

Availability of data and material
It is possible to share the data of this article at the formal request of the author for research purposes.

Funding
This research was funded by Tarbiat Modares University's fund for young professors. Model e cacy investigation with different components Figure 3 Correlation circle of the dependent variables (Y1, Y2, and X3), independent variables (X1 and X2), and groups (1, 2, and 3) with the rst two PLS components (t1, t2). Standardized regression coe cients above arrows show direct effects from linear models (n=60, *** P < 0.001) Figure 5 conceptual model for the rst group  conceptual model for control group