A Hypothesis about the Predominantly Gravitational Nature of Redshift in the Electromagnetic Spectra of Space Objects

. The study theoretically substantiates the relationship between the redshift in the electromagnetic spectrum of space objects and their gravity and demonstrates it with computational experiments. Redshift, in this case, is a consequence of a decrease in the speed of the photons emitted from the surface of objects, which is caused by the gravity of these objects. The decline in the speed of photons due to the gravity of space gravitating object (GO) is defined as Δ C = C-C ' , where: C' is the photon speed changed by the time the receiver records it. Then, at a change in the photon speed between a stationary source and a receiver, the redshift factor is determined as Z = (C-C ')/C' . Computational experiments determined the gravitational redshift of the Earth, the Sun, a neutron star, and a quasar. Graph of the relationship between the redshift and the ratio of sizes to the mass of any space GOs was obtained. The findings indicate that the distance to space objects does not depend on the redshift of these objects.


Introduction
In the electromagnetic spectrum of space objects, redshift is assigned a significant role in creating a physical picture of the Universe. Redshift is observed in almost all space objects (stars, galaxies, quasars, and others). As a consequence of the Doppler effect, redshift indicates the movement of almost all space objects from an observer on the Earth [1]. Redshift is the main argument in favor of the theory of the expanding Universe and the theory of the Big Bang [2,3]. Hubble's Law, which relies on the redshift concept, is employed to estimate the age of the Universe (in a very simplified and approximate way). Using redshift, researchers determined the higher rotation speed of galaxies, which gave rise to the concept of dark matter. The redshift concept also helped discover dark energy.
Redshift (a cosmological shift) is largely used as a magnitude characterizing the radial velocity (V) of the space objects moving away in the Universe expanding after the Big Bang. In this case, the redshift is defined [4] by the expression: and radial velocity is determined by the expression 2 2 (1 ) 1 * (1 ) 1 The value of the radial velocity is used to determine the distance to the object where: Н is Hubble constant, 67.8 (km/s)/megaparsec (1megaparsec = 3260000 light years).
Apart from the cosmological redshift, there is a concept of gravitational redshift, which is considered to be caused by gravitational time dilation, i.e., the energy loss by a photon transitioning to a region with a higher gravitational potential can be explained by the difference over time at the points of receiving and transmitting the signal [5].
Given that the gravitational shift of spectral lines does not have an unambiguous explanation accepted by all physicists, this research proposes a hypothesis -an explanation confirmed by computational experiments, which consider all the aspects of this phenomenon, including the relationship between the cosmological and gravitational redshift.
The experiments involving the determination of a shift of the spectral lines tend to show the displacement in the frequency spectrum according to the expression Z=(ν o -ν')/ν' [6]. However, further, the researchers use a proportional relation between frequency and wavelength of a photon and take by default the indisputability of the constancy of the speed of light С in the relation λ=C/ν (С is a speed of the photon (light),  is a photon frequency). The shift factor, in this case, is defined by Z=(λ'-λ o )/ λ o , which for the shift toward the red end has the sign "+", and for the shift toward the blue end has the sign "-" (in the formulas, the subscript ( 0 ) is for the source and superscript (' ) is for the receiver). The hypothesis proposed in this paper is based on the assumption that the speed of light changes in the gravitational field. Moreover, if a photon moves away from a gravitating object (GO), i.e., an object with a gravitational field, the speed of the photon is decreased by the GO gravity, and if the photon moves towards the gravitating object, the photon speed increases.
To explain this assumption, let us consider how waves behave in a wave medium if this medium is in motion. To begin with, examine the case substantiating the Doppler effect [7]. Let the source of the waves be stationary, and the receiver be moving (no matter to or from the source). The source creates waves of a specific frequency and length, and during their movement, neither wavelength, nor frequency, nor the speed of the wave movement changes. However, the moving receiver detects waves with a frequency value different from the frequency value of the source. What will be the difference between the frequency at the receiver and the frequency at the source? The difference will be as large as large is the change in the total velocity of the receiver and the waves with respect to the velocity of waves V, i.e., as large as fast (or slow) will be the interaction between the receiver and the waves. Since λ'=λ o , ν'= ν o *(V wave ± V r )/V wave .
Thus, ν o /ν'=V wave /(V wave ±V r ), i.e., the different frequency values at the receiver and the source are due to the additional velocity of waves because of the receiver's velocity ΔV=V r . In the case that the receiver approaches the source, the frequency value recorded at the receiver increases due to a rise in the total velocity ν'=ν o *(V wave +V r )/V wave . In this case, we have a blueshift, and shift factor Z will be If the receiver moves away from the source, the frequency value recorded at the receiver declines due to a decrease in the total velocity ν'=ν o *(V wave -V r )/V wave .
In this case, we have a redshift, and shift factor Z will be determined from the

Waves in the wave medium in accelerated motion
Let us consider the case where the receiver and the source are stationary with respect to one another, and there is a wave medium flow between them. The flow is accelerated, which provides an increment ΔV (or a decrease, depending on the direction of the waves with respect to the flow) of the wave velocity in the section between the source and the receiver. If the flow is uniform, there will be no velocity increment.
Such a phenomenon exists between a distant space object (a quasar, a galaxy, a star) and a receiver on the Earth.
Let us assume that each space gravitating object creates a very powerful flow of the light-carrying medium, which accelerates towards the gravitating object (gravity). In this flow, the light (photon) emitted from the surface of the gravitating object decelerates, and the speed of light (photon) goes down. The decline in the photon speed by the gravity of the space GO is defined as ΔС=С-С', where C' is a photon speed changed by the time of its recording at the receiver. Then, with a change in the photon speed between the stationary source and the receiver, the redshift is defined as Z=ΔС/(С-ΔС)=(C-C')/C'. In contrast to the case where the receiver moves towards the source, here, in the denominator, we use, which is logical, the speed of the photon it gained on the way from the source to the receiver, i.e., C'. Then The physics of such a process can be explained as follows: the receiver captures a lower number of peaks of the waves traveling in a moving wave medium if the waves move against the medium movement (decelerate). Accordingly, the receiver records a larger number of peaks of the waves if they move in the direction of the medium movement (accelerate). In this case, the frequency of the photon relative to the moving medium does not change.
We observe an effect, which is physically similar to the Doppler effect but differs from it by that it exists between the wave source and receiver that are stationary with respect to one another.

Frequency change in the electromagnetic spectra of space objects
From the perspective of the revealed effect, we should explain why and how an observer on the Earth registers changes in frequency (wavelength) in the electromagnetic spectra of space objects.
Note that the frequency meters (devices designed to obtain electromagnetic spectra from space objects) are calibrated to measure frequency, provided that However, astrophysical instruments are normally calibrated not in terms of frequency but in terms of wavelengths [8]. In this case, the wavelength is calculated by the expression We can make sure that the frequency of radiation depends on the wave speed by a simple reduction of the speeds. It is sufficient to multiply the value of the frequency recorded by the device by the value ' / CC and then we will see frequency 0  . In this case, Thus, the wavelength does not change when light moves from a distant space object. The changes occur only in the speed of light and in the recorded frequency when the speed of light changes.

Paund-Rebka experiments
Let us check the obtained relationships using the results of the Pound-Rebka experiment [5]. Photon passes the section h = 22.5 m from the source located

The redshift of the Sun
The redshift of the Sun, determined experimentally, is 2.1*10 -6 [9]. The calculation to check the redshift due to the gravity of the Sun was performed numerically using an algorithm similar to the previous one (used to explain the Pound-Rebka experiments), i.e., we determine a decrease in the speed of a ray of light under the influence of the Sun's gravity, which will be seen from the Earth as a slowdown in the speed of light.
Using this algorithm, we find the time it takes for the light to cover the current Thus, the redshift of the solar radiation spectrum is also explained provided that the light emitted by the Sun is first decelerated by the Sun's gravity, and then slightly increases its speed under the influence of the Earth's gravity, while the total shift appears to be red.
The speed of light from the Sun can be determined experimentally. To this end, it is necessary to direct a ray from the Sun and a ray from an Earth source through the shutter to a device that records the difference in the arrival times of the rays. If we place the recording device, for example, at a distance of 200 m from the shutter along the path of the rays, we will observe the difference in the arrival time of the rays equal to 1.4 picoseconds (1.4 * 10 -12 s).

Anomalous deceleration of spacecrafts
The anomalous acceleration of the spacecrafts Pioneer-10, Pioneer-11, and others moving away almost radially from the solar system, is also explained provided that the radio beam gains additional speed under the influence of the Sun's gravity.
It is worth noting that for remote spacecrafts, we obtain a situation completely identical to that reproduced in the Pound-Rebka experiments. Therefore, we use an algorithm similar to the one presented above.
In [10], the authors state, "…Radiometric tracking data from Pioneer 10 and 11 spacecraft have consistently indicated the presence of a small anomalous Doppler frequency drift uniformly changing with a rate of ~6*10 -9 Hz/s…" For the computational experiment, we divide the entire path of the radio wave from the spacecraft (from the last communication session (80 a.u.)) to the Earth (the receiver is placed here) into a certain number of sections. We find the time it takes for the radio wave to pass the given section; find the magnitude of the freefall acceleration of the Sun at each section using the well-known formula; find an increment in the speed of the radio wave due to the gravity of the Sun in this section. We determine the total speed increment of the radio wave along the entire route from the spacecraft to the Earth. Figure 1 presents a graph to illustrate the results of a change in the speed increment versus the distance (shown from 5 a.u. to 50 a.u.) from which the radio wave was emitted. Fig. 1. A graph of a change in the speed increment depending on the distance (shown from 5 a.u. to 50 a.u.) from which the radio wave is emitted (the vertical axis is in cm/s, the horizontal axis is in a.u.). Fig. 2. A graph of a speed increment of the radio wave, which creates an additional (to the Doppler redshift caused by the movement of the spacecraft from the observer) shift (a blueshift, i.e., Z with the sign "-") in the spacecraft radiation received on the Earth.  .2). The change in the speed increment corresponds to the alteration in the blueshift by 6.9*10 -10 (i.e., 0,207/299792458=6.9*10 -10 ).
In this case, the change in the frequency over eight years, which will be observed at the receiver, will be This means that in the section from 10 a.u. to 38 a.u. the frequency recorded at the receiver increased by 1.519 Hz and this increase is due to a change in the increment of the radio wave speed by 0.207 m/s. It worth noting that the frequency drift of the spacecrafts was measured sporadically, and the value 6 * 10 -9 is some average value.
In actuality, the proposed method, given the Earth's orbital motion, can be used to rather accurately calculate the frequency drift for any spacecraft moving from the Sun to the solar system boundary.
Currently, some spacecrafts are far from the Sun, and it is enough to measure the blueshift in their radio signals to make sure that the research presented in the paper is correct.
Thus, the reason for the anomalous allegedly deceleration of spacecrafts moving away from the Sun has been physically explained and confirmed by the calculations, which showed good agreement of the calculation results with the measured parameters.
We can say that there is no deceleration of spacecrafts. To correctly determine the trajectory of interplanetary vehicles, it is necessary to take into account the increment in the speed of radio signals in the gravitational field of the Sun.

The redshift of space objects
In the cases considered above, the speed increment is insignificant, but it explains the effects arising. Similarly, one can explain the redshift effects of massive space objects and show that the speed of light changes.

The redshift of a neutron star
Let us consider a specific case using a neutron star as an example. The study in [12] shows the result of measuring the gravitational redshift of a neutron star.

The redshift of quasars
As for quasars, neither mass nor radius is known for them. Quasars were for the first time discovered in 1960 as radio sources coinciding in the optical range with faint stellar objects. In 1963, M. Schmidt (USA) proved that the lines in their spectra are strongly redshifted. Assuming that this redshift is caused by the Doppler effect, which arose as a result of the quasars moving away, the distance to them was determined according to Hubble law. A galaxy with a redshift of 7.085 has been recently identified [13].
More than 200,000 quasars have already been discovered. The closest and the brightest (3C 273) of them has a brightness of about 13 m and a redshift of Z = 0.158 (which corresponds to a distance of about 3 billion light years). The most distant quasars, due to their supposedly gigantic luminosity, exceeding the luminosity of normal galaxies by hundreds of times, can be seen at a distance of more than 10 billion light years [13]. The studies of the nearest quasars have allowed us to find out that they are located in the nuclei of large galaxies; this is probably typical of other quasars as well. The irregular variability in the quasar brightness indicates that the region where their radiation is generated is of a small size comparable to the size of the solar system.
If we assume that the quasar is a kind of superstar that burns hydrogen it consists of, then its mass should be up to one billion solar masses [13].
Thus, the initial data for calculating the increments of speed in the gravitational field of the quasar include a mass that "will reach hundreds of millions of the Suns" and a redshift with the values varying from 0.158 to 7. The calculation employs the algorithm used for a neutron star. In this case, we set some value for the quasar mass, for example, 10 million solar masses, and select its radius, at which we obtain a given redshift.
The following results have been obtained: With a quasar mass equal to 10 million solar masses, we obtain its radius equal to 41.19 solar radii and 239921 C = km/s (the speed of light decreased by 239921 km /s), while the redshift Z = 4.0073. Since for an observer on the Earth, the speed of the light coming from a quasar (similarly to a neutron star) will be less by the amount of its deceleration due to the gravity of the quasar, i.e., it is equal to the difference (299792 -239921), the redshift is determined as Computational experiments, whose results are in good agreement with the experimental data, show that the redshift in the electromagnetic spectra of distant objects in the Universe is characterized by the degree of decrease in the speed of light due to the gravity of these objects, which is accompanied by a decline in the frequency recorded at the receiver.
Thus, knowing the value of the redshift (Z) in the electromagnetic spectrum of a space object, one can determine the speed of light (C') coming from this object to the observer on the Earth: ' This formula can be applied to any values of redshift. In this case, the redshift of a quasar is by no means related to the distance to it.

Observations by Halton Arp
The official science understands redshift as a value characterizing the radial velocity (V) of the space objects moving away in the Universe expanding after the Big Bang. In this case, the redshift is described by expression (1), and the radial velocity is determined by expression (2). The magnitude of the radial velocity is used to determine the distance to the object according to (3). In the case study by H. Arp, the spiral galaxy NGC7603 (Z=0.029, V=8568 km/s, R=466 million light years) is connected to the neighboring galaxy (object 1, Z=0.057 V=16601 km/s, R=902 m light years) through a luminous bridge (Fig. 3).
Judging by the difference in their redshift, the galaxies should be at significant distances from each other. The neighboring galaxy should be 436 million light years farther away (Table 1). For comparison, our Galaxy is only 2.9 million light years distant from the nearest "neighbor", the Andromeda galaxy M31 (NGC224).
Moreover, quasars were found in the luminous bridge (object 2, Z=0.243, V=64203 km/s, R=3.5 billion light years and object 3, Z=0.391, V=95496 km/s,    In the context of the hypothesis proposed in this paper about the relationship between the speed of light and gravity, the solution to this paradox is quite simple.

R=5.2 billion light years).
All visually related objects are close to each other. and the values of redshift in the electromagnetic spectrum of these objects show the deceleration of the speed of light due to the gravity of these objects.
For the given case of two galaxies and two quasars (Fig. 3), we obtain the values of the speed of light at an observer on the Earth (Table 1)  Thus, with the correct use of redshift, we obtain a real speed of light (C ') from each of the objects.

Rationale of new experiments
The question naturally arises, if the speed of light from space objects is so strikingly different from the nominal, then why has not it been discovered so far? The answer can be very simple -scientists of the official science were so convinced that the speed of light is constant that they did not even ask a question in such a setting. To some extent, this was facilitated by the fact that it is impossible to measure the speed of light from an extraterrestrial object by a direct method (using optical instruments). As soon as a photon hits the lens, it further moves along the lens material at a rated speed as a result of the reemission of photons. Therefore, the methods of direct assessment are needed.
One of the possible methods can be an experiment involving the observation of an eclipse of an object with a redshift (the higher the shift, the more noticeable the effect) obscured by any planet of the Solar system, with the object observed as if crawling onto the planet's disk, i.e., the object will be seen against the background of the planet's disk edge. We use the time of this observation and the known distance to the planet to determine the speed of light coming from the object. This speed must coincide with the speed of light, determined by the expression C'=C/(1+Z).
The very first experiments to measure the speed of light from such objects as a quasar or a galaxy moving away based on the proposed method will show its significant difference from the rated speed of light.
Thus, the gravitational redshift of spectral lines is characteristic of all gravitating objects. The larger the gravitating object mass and the smaller its dimensions, the greater shift is recorded at the receiver, i.e., the redshift is just a characteristic of the GO parameters and in no way a characteristic of the speed, at which these objects move away from the observer (except for the cases where the objects orbit, when the Doppler effect manifests itself, one can observe here both an insignificant redshift and an insignificant blueshift, i.e., the gravitational redshift can be either strengthened or weakened by the cosmological one).
Moreover, there are no methods that would make it possible to distinguish the gravitational redshift from the cosmological one.

A scale of gravitational redshifts
The relationship between the speed of light from space objects and the redshift in their spectra was revealed above: C'=C/(1+Z). It shows how much the speed C (299792458 m/s) of photons emitted by the object decreases due to its gravity. Using the developed method to calculate the speed of light propagating in a gravitational field, the ratios of the size of an object to its mass are obtained for a neutron star and a quasar.
Next, the problem of determining the entire scale of gravitational redshift for the objects of any mass and any size was solved through the calculation disregarding whether or not the objects with such parameters are found.
Solving the problem revealed that for the objects of ANY mass, the redshift will be the same at the same ratio of R/M, where R is the radius of the object in km, and M is its mass in solar masses.
Then, an array of points Z = f (R/M) was obtained by setting the value of the R/M ratio for one of the mass values ( Table 2). The calculations were made in Excel. To obtain one point, a 7x16000 table was compiled. The values from Table   2 were used to build a graph of the relationship Z = f(R/M) (Fig.4). Table 2. Relationships between the redshift of a space object and the ratio of the object size to its mass (R is the radius of the object in km, M is the mass of the object in solar masses). can immediately determine the ratio of the object's size to its mass. Astronomers tend to find it easy to calculate the mass of an object and then, using the relationship Z = f (R/M), determine its size. In this case, the size of an object is understood as the radius of its radiating surface.  4. Graph of the relationship between the redshift of a space object and the ratio of the object's size to its mass (R is the radius of the object in km, M is the mass of the object in solar masses).
Thus, the given relationship for the objects of any mass, which is only possible in the Universe, covers all possible variants of the redshift values due to the objects' gravity. In this case, we should take into account the shifts (red and blue) caused by the movement of the objects (from us and to us). According to the calculated forecasts, the objects with a redshift equal to Z = 26 or more will soon be discovered (the light emitted from this object will have a speed of 11111 km/sec or less), and they will most likely be located in our Galaxy. The highest value of redshift Z = 197.496 was obtained by calculation for R/M = 2.7366. The obtained relationship was also verified for such objects as the Sun and the Earth, and an exact coincidence was obtained. Therefore, now it will be incorrect to consider the redshift as a phenomenon caused by the expansion of the Universe because all possible redshifts are explained by gravity, i.e., the relationship between sizes and masses of objects and the speeds of movement of the objects in orbits (galaxies are also likely to move in their orbits around some center of the Universe).

Conclusions
The erroneous use of the Doppler effect to interpret the redshift in the electromagnetic spectra of space objects as a characteristic of their motion from the observer led to the incorrect general theory of relativity; the theory of the expanding Universe, the theory of the Big Bang, the theory of dark matter, and to the theory of an acceleratingly expanding Universe.
The correct use of redshift, as that of a predominantly gravitational nature, solves all problems and allows seeing a real picture of the Universe and getting a clear vision of its structure and evolution. Figure 1 A graph of a change in the speed increment depending on the distance (shown from 5 a.u. to 50 a.u.)

Figures
from which the radio wave is emitted (the vertical axis is in cm/s, the horizontal axis is in a.u.).

Figure 2
A graph of a speed increment of the radio wave, which creates an additional (to the Doppler redshift caused by the movement of the spacecraft from the observer) shift (a blueshift, i.e., Z with the sign "-") in the spacecraft radiation received on the Earth.  Graph of the relationship between the redshift of a space object and the ratio of the object's size to its mass (R is the radius of the object in km, M is the mass of the object in solar masses).