How Childhood Maltreatment Links to Labor Values? The Mediating Role of Moral Competence and Prosocial Normative Tendency

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-1295980/v1

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How Childhood Maltreatment Links to Labor Values? The Mediating Role of Moral Competence and Prosocial Normative Tendency

https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-1295980/v1

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Background: Labor values are important for the individual value system. Especially in China, labor values are regarded as one of the most important values of an individual. In the study of values, childhood maltreatment is considered to have an important influence on the formation of individual values. However, previous studies have no research on the relationship between childhood maltreatment and labor values. The mechanism of childhood maltreatment on labor values is less understood but requires futher study.

Methods: This study intended to investigate the relationship between childhood maltreatment and labor values, and further to explore whether moral competence and prosocial normative tendency mediated this correlation. Therefore, 2691 participants were recruited from primary and secondary school, who completed Labor Values Scale, Childhood Trauma Questionnaire, Moral Competence subscale and Prosocial Norms subscale.

Results: Results revealed the negative correlation between childhood maltreatment and labor values. Importantly, childhood maltreatment also indirectly impacted labor values through moral competence and prosocial normative tendency. It indicated that both moral competence and prosocial normative tendency played a significant mediating role in this relationship. Our findings are valuable for understanding the underlying mechanism between early trauma and values.

Conclusions: Childhood maltreatment has important implications for labor values. Moral competence and prosocial normative tendency mediate between childhood maltreatment and labor values. This reminds us to pay attention to the important influence of childhood maltreatment in the cultivation of individual labor values. Also pay attention to the role of moral competence and prosocial normative tendency.

Childhood maltreatment

labor values

moral competence

prosocial normative tendency

Values refer to a preference tendency that meets people's needs, and are the conceptual system that guides people's cognitive judgment, choice, and behavioral practice (Roleach,1973; Schartz,1999; Huang and Zheng, 2015). On this basis, some scholars believe that labor values is an important part of the individual value system. It is people’s general and fundamental views on the state and labor degree to meet people’s needs, and it is the intrinsic needs of the individual and the labor characteristics or attributes pursued when engaging in activities (Guo and Liu, 2016). However, the existing research on the interpretation of the connotation of labor values is still very inadequate. On the one hand, there are very few studies on labor values; on the other hand, it is because Values have typical regional and cultural characteristics (Robinson,2008; Hartung, et al. , 2008). However, our department got some inspiration from the research on work values. For example, Super (1970) believes that work value is a criterion to judge work behavior and goals in a specific occupational field, and it is the basis for personal career choices. Some other researchers believe that work values can stably predict or explain internalized characteristics, behavioral expressions (Sortheix, et al. , 2015) or work motivation (Jambrak, et al. , 2014)in the corresponding work environment. There is a certain difference between the connotation of labor values and work values. According to the research of Hao (2014) and Tan (2019a, 2019b), labor values are an abstraction of all subjective evaluations of labor. In the Chinese institutional culture guided by Marxism, labor values have special meanings. According to the research of Tan (2019b), in Chinese culture, labor values refer to the individual's positive labor attitude, that is, refusing to be lazy, hurting others, self-interest and other negative values; at the same time, encouraging and cuitivate people to respect and enjoy the labor process and labor results, and to treat employees and labor results equally. Liu (2019) elaborated on the connotation of correct labor values from the perspective of labor education. He elaborated on the labor values that labor is great, laborers and labor results are worthy of respect. The Chinese official government has also discussed on many occasions what labor values should be established. For example, President Xi Jinping believes that positive labor values should be established with the main content of honest labor, equal labor, cherishing labor results, love of labor, and distribution of benefits according to labor(Xi,2014). The above connotations of labor values are also clearly explained in the research of Chao and Wang(Chao and Wang, 2020).

The nature of labor education is to cultivate correct labor values (Hu and Tan, 2018), which are determined by the choice and cognition that laborers show in the labor process (Yu and He, 2014). However, as society changes, The importance of labor education is increasingly being ignored. Some studies have found that more and more young people have no motivation to work, they are unwilling to work, and will not work(Chen, 2021). Our survey also found that many young people do not like hard work, and they prefer to choose jobs that are easy and easy to do. This is mainly because they did not cultivate healthy and positive labor values in the early stage. Therefore, it is particularly important to strengthen the education of youth labor values. However, in order to strengthen the education of young people's labor values, it is also necessary to know what factors may affect the young people's labor values. What factors need to be paid attention to in the education of youth labor values? How can we better provide youth education on labor values? These problems have not been effectively resolved. Our research is the first to link childhood maltreatment with adolescent labor values and discuss the impact of childhood maltreatment on adolescent labor values. It provides a theoretical and empirical reference for understanding the relationship between adolescents’ early experiences and labor values. At the same time, our research lays a foundation for understanding the connotation of youth labor values under the background of the Chinese socialist system, as well as comparing the similarities and differences of youth labor values and influencing factors under different institutional and cultural backgrounds between China and Western countries.

We have noticed that under the influence of specific situations, values may change with age (Lönnqvist, et al. , 2018). There are also gender differences in labor values(Chao and Gu, 2021). At the same time, some studies have pointed out that there are differences in childhood maltreatment among adolescents of different genders and ages (Liao, et al. , 2011;Finkelhor, et al . , 2014). The above research inspires us, when discussing the impact of childhood maltreatment on labor values, it is necessary to pay attention to possible gender and age differences. According to our research, while analyzing the impact of childhood maltreatment on labor values, we will also verify and analyze the differences based on gender and age grouping.

1.1 Childhood maltreatment and labor values

Childhood maltreatment refers to caregivers’ actual or potential harmful behavior to children’s physical and mental health(Kempe, 1984), including physical abuse, sexual abuse, emotional or psychological abuse and neglect(Bernstein, et al. , 1997). As an adverse experience in childhood, childhood maltreatment plays an enduring detrimental role in maltreated victims’ physical and mental health(Fergusson, et al. , 2008). As suggested by literature, negative values might be one of the cognitive outcomes of childhood maltreatment(Smetana, et al. , 1984;Smetana, et al. , 1999). Values are preferences that meet people’s needs, which form a conception system guiding people’s cognitive judgment, choice and behaviors(Janik, et al. ,2021;Popovic, et al. ,2019). However, Magdalena (2013) has found that it is more difficult for maltreated children to get enough support from their social networks than non-maltreated ones, which hinders the development of positive values. Similarly, Catherine(2016) has also reported that maltreated adolescents are less likely to form friendly values because of deficits in social cognitive function. It can be concluded that childhood maltreatment is harmful for the formation of positive personal values. To our knowledge, no research has directly examined the relationship between childhood maltreatment and labor values, let alone the underlying mechanism. Investigating these issues is not only helpful for expanding knowledge about adverse experiences and negative consequences, but also valuable for reducing the enduring negative effect of this unchangeable adversity (i.e., childhood maltreatment) on shaping labor values practically. Therefore, the main aim of this study is to examine the relation between childhood maltreatment and labor values. In addition, we would further explore whether moral competence and prosocial normative tendency served as mediators in this correlation.

1.2 The mediating role of moral competence

The ability to judge the validity and rationality of certain social phenomena through cognitive control and moral judgment is called moral competence(Daniel, et al. , 2007). As a cognitive ability, moral competence may be undermined by unhealthy developmental environment. For instance, Zeng et al have suggested that individuals who grew up in maltreated environment are more likely to judge themselves negatively(Zeng, et al. , 2015). In addition to the biased judgment toward self-value, maltreated experience is also harmful for social cognition and might cause deficits in moral judgment(Yu, et al. , 2017;Catherine, et al. , 2016). Thus, childhood maltreatment is an environmental risk factor that might impair moral competence, which might further affect labor values. Though value is relative stable, it actually is an open and dynamic system that allowing change and adjustment(Huang, 2014). Identification¹⁹ and self-consistency maintenance(Arieli, et al. , 2014) are considered to contribute the change of values, both of which reflect moral judgement and evaluation to some degree. For example, self-identity and moral judgment are believed to impact the representation of values(Kaplan, et al. , 2016). Additionally, Mars et al(Mars, et al. , 2012). have found the formation and development of values may be accompanied by cognitive judgment and moral evaluation. These studies imply that the moral judgement and evaluation components of moral competence have potential impacts on values, and thus labor values are presumed to be affected by moral competence as well. Based on evidence shown before, it is hypothesized that childhood maltreatment weakens moral competence, through which further negatively influences the formation of positive labor values.

1.3 The mediating role of prosocial normative tendency

Prosocial normative tendency is the probability of persons’ abidance by or being persuaded by social norms(Daniel, et al., 2012). Values are the core structure of socialization process(Li and He, 2013) that might be influenced by social norms’ persuasion and social pressure(Hitlin and Piliavin, 2004). Pincus et al. (2014) have found that the formation and persistence of personal values can be impacted by the motivation to comply with “norms” in peer group. It is also believed that persuasion could prompt individuals to reevaluate their values and thus make the change of values possible(Falk and Scholz, 2018). Through persuasion, people can realize the unreasonable and absent aspects of original values and this provides an opportunity for shaping more positive values(Bardi, A., & Goodwin, R., 2011; Falk, et al. , 2015). Therefore, those who have prosocial normative tendency have increased likelihood to form positive labor values because their tendency to follow and be changed by social norms. However, this desired tendency may be harmed by childhood maltreatment, which is an early traumatic and adverse experience. For example, Maughan et al. (2002) have found the majority of maltreated children have difficulty in regulating emotions, which makes them less likely to be accepted by peers and internalize social norms(Kim and Cicchetti, 2010). Previous studies have also demonstrated that people with a history of being maltreated have decreased possibility of observing social norms(Dittmer, et al. , 2011;Shipman, et al. , 2007). Therefore, we hypothesized that childhood maltreatment was detrimental for the formation of prosocial normative tendency, which in turn played a negative effect on labor values.

Based on the above evidence, this study focused on the impact of childhood maltreatment on labor values, and further intended to explore the mediating role of moral competence and prosocial normative tendency. Three research hypotheses of this paper were as followings. H1: childhood maltreatment had a negative influence on labor values. H2: childhood maltreatment negatively affects the individual’s ability to distinguish right from wrong, which in turn affects the individual’s formation of positive labor values. H3: childhood maltreatment hinders the individual from developing prosocial normative tendency, which in turn affects the individual’s formation of positive labor values.

2.1 Participants

Participants were primary school children and adolescents from two primary schools, two junior high schools and one high school in Mainland China. 2691 valid questionnaires (1504 from boys and 1,187 from girls) remained after deleting all the invalid questionnaires. The sample included the upper grades of elementary school (fourth, fifth, and sixth grade, 1303 participants), junior high school students (673 participants) and high school students (715 participants). The average age of this sample is 12.50 ± 2.00. Ethics approval for this study was obtained from authors’ organization.

2.2 Measures

2.2.1 Labor Values Scale

Labor Values Scale (LVS) developed by Chao and Wang¹⁵ basing on groups of senior primary school students aged 8-12 was employed to evaluate labor values. This scale consists of 15 items scored from 1 (totally disagree) to 5 (totally agree), including five dimensions (i.e., division value according to labor, honest, equal, cherishing and loving labor value). A sample item is “I enjoy the process of labor”. Higher total scores indicate more positive labor values. At the same time, a study by Chao and Gu (2021) confirmed that the scale is also applicable to junior high school students and high school students aged 12-18. In our study, The Cronbach’s α is 0.832.

2.2.2 Childhood Trauma Questionnaire

Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ) designed by Bernstein et al.(2003) and revised by Nina He & Yanhui Xiang(2021) was applied to evaluate the situation of childhood maltreatment in age 8-18. The CTQ includes 23 items rated on a 5-point scale (1 = never, 5 = always), and an example item is “My family threatened me in my childhood”. This scale consists of physical abuse, physical neglect, emotional abuse and emotional neglect subscale. The Cronbach α coefficient of the whole scale is 0.898.

2.2.3 Moral Competence subscale and Prosocial Norms subscale

The Clear and Positive Identity Subscale developed by Shek, Siu and Lee(2007) were adopted, which contained 15 subscales about the positive development of adolescents. Items of Moral Competence subscale (MC) and Prosocial Norms subscale (PN) were used to measure moral competence and prosocial normative tendency, respectively. Both of the two scales have three items. “I have high moral requirements for my behavior” is an example of MC and “I care about the unfortunate people in society” is an example of PN. All items were scored from 1 (strongly disagree) to 6 (strongly agree). The Cronbach α coefficients of MC and PN are 0.716 and 0.667 respectively.

2.2.4 Data analysis

Data analysis is divided into three steps: In the first step, we use Amos 20.0 to establish a measurement model to explore whether each observed variable can represent a latent variable; The second step is to construct a structural model. That is, early abuse as an independent variable, labor values as a dependent variable, and MC and PN as an intermediary to establish a full model; In the third step, we use bootstrap estimation procedure to detect the significance of the intermediary. According to a study by Byrne(2001), comparative fitting index (CFI), approximate root mean square error (RMSEA) and standardized root mean square residual (SRMR) were used as fitting indices to evaluate the model fitness.

3.1 Measurement model

4 latent variables (i.e., labor values, moral competence, prosocial normative tendency and childhood maltreatment) and 15 observation variables are contained in the measurement model. The results have shown the data fits this model well (χ²_{(84, 2691)} = 1039.83, p < .001; RMSEA = .065；SRMR = .051；CFI = .926). And all latent variables are well represented by observed variables because the factor loads of all latent variables are significant (p < .001). In addition, Table 1 has shown the correlations among four latent variables and demographic factors, and all latent variables are significantly correlated with each other.

Table 1 Descriptive statistics and bivariate correlations for all measures

	M	SD	1	2	3	4	5	6	7
1. Gender			1
2. Grade			.03	1
3. Age	12.50	2.00	.06^**	.91^***	1
4. Labor values	59.03	8.65	-.06^**	-.16^***	-.17^***	1
5. Moral competence	13.42	2.87	-.07^***	-.03	-.05^*	.49^***	1
6. PNT	14.73	2.60	.11^***	-.03	-.04^*	.53^***	.52^***	1
7. CM	32.87	11.89	.02	-.15^***	-.15^***	-.23^***	-.16^***	-.21^***	1

Note: PNT = Prosocial normative tendency; CM = Childhood maltreatment; ^*p < .05, ^**p < .01, ^***p < .001

3.2 Structural model

Firstly, childhood maltreatment is related to labor values directly (r = -.25, p < .001) when mediators are absent. Then a model with mediators of moral competence and prosocial normative tendency are has been built (Model 1). The fitting degree of this model is unsatisfactory: χ²_{(85, 2691)} = 1824.47, p < .001; RMSEA = .383; SRMR = .106; CFI = .865. Therefore, we modified this model by linking errors of two mediators according to modification indices and theoretical relationships (Model 2, see Figure 1). The Model 2 has shown good fitness (χ²_{(84, 2691)} = 1039.83，p < .001; RMSEA = .065; SRMR = .051; CFI = .926) and thus this model served as structural model in this study.

Bootstrap estimation method (Bootstrap = 1000) is further used to test whether the mediating paths are significant. And results indicates that childhood maltreatment indirectly impacts labor values through moral competence and prosocial normative tendency (see Table 2).

Table 2 Standardized indirect effect and 95% confidence intervals

Paths	Estimate	Lower	Upper
CM → moral competence → labor values	-.09	-.12	-.06
CM → PNT → labor values	-.12	-.15	-.08

Note: The mediating effect of a pathway is significant if the 95% confidence interval does not include 0.

3.3 Gender differences

We further examined the gender differences of structural model. Firstly, gender differences in every variable were tested. And results have shown boys score higher than girls in prosocial normative tendency and lower in moral competence and labor values, while there is no statistical difference in childhood maltreatment.

Secondly, gender differences in all path coefficients were tested by using multi-group analysis. After limiting the factor loadings, error variances and structural covariances to be equal, two models were established following Byrne(2001). The first one constrained all path coefficients in different gender to be equal (constrained structural paths) while the other did not (unconstrained structural paths). Both models fitted data well and they were not significantly different (△χ²_{(5, 2691)} = 9.47, p ＞ .05). Since χ² value could be affected by the sample size, critical ratios of differences (CRD) were also used to determine the cross-gender stability of Model 2. Two parameters were considered different if the absolute value of CRD was greater than 1.96. And no path coefficients were different in different genders (CRD _CM→MC = -1.53; CRD _MC→LV= 1.34; CRD _CM→LV = 1.03; CRD _CM→PNT = -0.08; CRD _PNT→LV = -0.07). Based on these, there existed no significant gender difference in the structural model, indicating the cross-gender stability of this model.

3.4 Grade differences

We also tested the grade differences of structural model. First, we examined results in grade differences and found students in lower grades scored higher in childhood maltreatment and labor values, while no grade differences moral competence and prosocial normative tendency.

Then, grade differences in all path coefficients were also examined using multi-group analysis. Similar to the examination of gender differences, we limited the same parameters to be equal and then established two models (i.e., constrained structural paths and unconstrained structural paths). Though these models were significantly different (△χ²_{(10, 2691)} = 21.74, p = .02), the results of CRD suggested that no path coefficients were different in differentχ grades (primary school students vs. junior school students: CRD _CM→MC = 0.62; CRD _MC→LV= -0.94; CRD _CM→LV = -0.81; CRD _CM→PNT = 1.31; CRD _PNT→LV = 0.27; primary school students vs. high school students: CRD _CM→MC = 0.53; CRD _MC→LV= -1.46; CRD _CM→LV = -0.63; CRD _CM→PNT = 0.89; CRD _PNT→LV = 0.57; junior school students vs. high school students: CRD _CM→MC = -0.09; CRD _MC→LV= -0.49; CRD _CM→LV = 0.16; CRD _CM→PNT = -0.27; CRD _PNT→LV = 0.25). These results indicated there existed no significant grade difference in the structural model.

The present research discussed the direct correlation between childhood maltreatment and children’s labor values, and further explored whether moral competence and prosocial normative tendency mediated this relationship. Results revealed that childhood maltreatment was negatively correlated with labor values. In addition, childhood maltreatment indirectly affected labor values by moral competence and prosocial normative tendencies. These findings suggest that moral competence and prosocial normative tendency are pathways linking childhood maltreatment and labor values for the first time, providing theoretical guidance for reducing the influence of early traumatic experience on negative values from the perspective of cognitive ability and social tendency. In addition, our analysis results showed that the impact of childhood maltreatment on labor values did’nt not have significant differences between gender and grade groups on different paths. This showed that the results of the model analysis were consistent with a stable trend among different grades and genders.

Hypothesis 1 has been supported by the finding of the negative correlation between childhood maltreatment and labor values, which is similar with evidence that maltreated children are less likely to develop positive values(Li, et al. , 2020). Education, especially family education from parents, is precisely an important factor in the formation of children's values(Sinnappan and Ahman, 2011; ). Childhood maltreatment puts children in an abnormal family education environment, which is detrimental to the cultivation of their labor values(Page, 1999). Therefore, it is difficult for children to form a positive self-evaluation and self-awareness in the unfavorable family environment of childhood maltreatment(Garber and Flynn, 2001), which hinders their normal interpersonal interaction(Hombrados, et al . , 2013). And negative interpersonal environment is detrimental to cultivate labor values. Therefore, childhood maltreatment is negatively related to labor values from the perspective of rational cognition and social interaction.

Interestingly, this study has found that moral competence is a mediator between childhood maltreatment and children’s labor values, which supports hypothesis 2. Existing studies have also reported that childhood maltreatment does harm to individuals’ attitudes or behaviors through undermining their moral competence(Mills, et al . , 2013; Gini, et al . , 2014). Children who have experienced maltreatment usually have defects in social cognitive function and some prejudice in value judgment(Catherine, et al . , 2016). Insufficient ability in value judgment of maltreated children is reflected in low moral competence in this study, indicating that it is relatively more difficult for them to make reasonable moral judgments on social phenomenon. However, moral competence is important for cultivating children’s labor values. The formation and development of values are series of process including concept judgment and decision-making(Mars, et al . , 2012), and the concept of right and wrong and moral competence are critical for shaping values. People with high cognitive control and moral judgment ability are more likely to keep positive and correct values and adhere to them(Aron, 2007; Carter and Veen, 2007). Conversely, people with poor moral competence have deficits in cognitive control and moral judgment, so they are less likely to form or maintain positive values. Therefore, people tend to have negative labor values if their moral competence is insufficient. In a word, childhood maltreatment undermines moral competence, which in turn makes it more difficult for people to form positive and normal labor values.

Similarly, the hypothesis 3 has also been confirmed that prosocial normative tendency mediates the correlation between childhood maltreatment and labor values. This may be because maltreated individuals are more prone to feel anger, and chronic anger further makes them more likely to engage in aggressive behavior and form antisocial personality(Trask, et al. , 2011), which are reflections of difficulties in accepting and abiding to social norms. Moreover, maltreated children are less likely to recognize and comply with social norms(Dittmer, et al . , 2011), which also suggests that childhood maltreatment experience is detrimental for developing prosocial normative tendency. However, this tendency plays an important role for people to accept persuasion from others, which further reduce the possibility of modifying inappropriate conceptions or developing positive ones. Values consist of systematic conceptions(Roleach, 1973; Schartz, 1999) and persuasion is a critical influencing factor of individual values(Vezich, et al. , 2017). It is believed that logical persuasion and restrictions of social norms can cultivate values by influencing cognitive process(Bardi and Goodwin, 2011). And the reason why social norms shapes values may be that conceptions are reevaluated and incorporated to existing value system(Falk, et al . , 2015). Based on above discussions, it can be understood that maltreated children have reduced probability of recognition and abidance to social norms (i.e., prosocial normative tendency), which further makes them tend to form negative labor values.

For various reasons, there are still some deficiencies in our research. Firstly, our respondents are from China. As a socialist country, the Chinese have attached great importance to the education of labor values since childhood. Compared with China, other countries may place very different emphasis on labor values education. Therefore, the relationship between childhood maltreatment and labor values in different countries needs further comparison. Secondly, labor values may change over time under the influence of labor behavior and labor education. But our study was not a longitudinal study. So it is impossible to determine how the impact of childhood maltreatment on labor values has changed over time. In the future, we will do a longitudinal study.

Ethics approval and consent to participate

Human subjects’ approval and all information was received by the University of Hunan Normal University Human Research Ethics Committee for the key informant interviews (ID: 20200725). Written informed consent was collected from all participants. It was emphasized that participation was voluntary. All methods were performed in accordance with the relevant guidelines.

Consent for publication

Participants were informed that the information they gave in the survey would be published in anonymised form.

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

Funding

Funding for this study came from The Hunan Women's Research Association as part of their Research programme on the Women's Research https://www.hnwomen.org.cn/2019/10/10/218576.html (Award ID: 19ZDB07). The design of the research is the sole responsibility of the authors. Feedback on the research outcomes was provided through discussions with a project advisory board at The Hunan Women's Research Association.

Availability of data and materials

The dataset used and analysed during the current study available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Author Contributions

All authors listed have made a substantial, direct and intellectual contribution to the work, and approved it for publication.

Acknowledgements

Not applicable.

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How Childhood Maltreatment Links to Labor Values? The Mediating Role of Moral Competence and Prosocial Normative Tendency

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