Temperature and Oxygen Response to Groundwater Discharge in the Ice-Covered Razdolnaya River Estuary (Sea of Japan)

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-1310500/v1

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Research Article

Temperature and Oxygen Response to Groundwater Discharge in the Ice-Covered Razdolnaya River Estuary (Sea of Japan)

https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-1310500/v1

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The study demonstrates a dynamic connection between the saltwater wedge region and its underlying aquifer. In winter, this estuary is covered with ice and the river flow is at its lowest; that is why its hydrological and oxygen-specific response to groundwater discharge is best marked in this season. Groundwater discharge was detected in the saltwater wedge region by highly active radium isotopes: ²²⁴Ra — 66.32 ± 0.60 dpm 100L⁻¹, ²²³Ra — 2.85 ± 0.17 dpm 100L⁻¹, ²²⁸Ra — 159.15 ± 0.13 dpm 100L^{− 1}. The temperature of ground and river waters was +4.3 °С and +0.09 °С, respectively, that of sea water −1.2 °С, and the near-bottom layer temperature increased up to +1.2 °С in the water discharge region. According to the data provided by an anchored autonomous station installed in the area of saltwater discharge influence during the freeze-up period, the temperature reaches 2.5 °С in the saltwater wedge. Groundwater discharge is accompanied by a lower level of oxygen saturation – 67%, at that time oxygen saturation in sea water was 151%. Thus, we present evidence documenting the natural process that may result in a lower level of oxygen saturation in an estuary irrespective of man-induced effects, supply of nutrients and further intensification of production-destruction processes.

Salt-wedge estuary

Graundwater discharge

Radium isotopes

Stable isotopes δ18О and δD

This study is topical largely due to groundwater discharge effects on estuary ecosystems (Rocha et al. 2021; Garcia-Orellana et al. 2021). Anoxic groundwater inputs account for oxygen deficit in bottom waters and radium isotopes indicate that hypoxia is caused by offshore groundwater discharge (McCoy et al. 2011; Peterson et al. 2016; Guo et al. 2020). Groundwater discharge is often accompanied by temperature anomalies (Anderson 2005), and thus it can affect the aquatic biota (Morin et al. 1999; Shuter et al. 2012).

Groundwater discharge process traditionally known as SGD was defined as the flow from the seabed to the coastal ocean (Moore 1999; Burnett et al. 2006). In coastal basins, groundwater discharge has been studied in lagoon-estuaries (Young et al. 2008; Wang and Du, 2016; Rodellas et al. 2017; Tamborski et al. 2019) and in wetlands (Carol et al. 2022). But the study of this effect using radioisotopes in the ice-covered basins is limited to only a few publications on the Arctic region (see Lecher 2017 for a review; Dabrowski et al. 2020). The ice-covered estuarine ecosystems with a regime known as salt-wedge intrusion (Valle-Levinson 2010) have not been studied in terms of the impact of groundwater discharge.

We selected the Razdolnaya River Estuary, seasonally covered with ice, located in the north-western part of the Sea of Japan as an object of our study. The water exchange of estuaries in the Sea of Japan was previously studied both by Japanese researchers on the coast of Japan (Kasai et al. 2010; Watanabe et al. 2014) and Russian researchers on the coast of the Russian Federation (Zvalinsky et al. 2010; Shulkin et al. 2018; Tishchenko et al. 2020). In winter, the estuaries of the Japanese islands are subject to high water conditions (Funahashi et al. 2013), while the estuaries of the Russian coast are in low water and freeze-up conditions. It is in the northwestern estuaries of the Sea of Japan that, covered with ice in the winter season groundwater discharge is expected to occur due to tidal action when there is no wind mixing.

Radium isotopes have been recognized as tracers for studying groundwater discharge processes because they are geochemically conservative and have high activities in the coastal groundwater relative to seawater (Burnett et al. 1990). Stable hydrogen (δD) and oxygen (δ¹⁸O) isotopes are also useful conservative tracers for understanding sources of groundwater discharge (Povinec et al. 2008).

We have already found the discharge of groundwaters in the Razdolnaya River Estuary based on data on ²²⁴Ra isotopes (Semkin et al. 2021). The purpose of this article is to assess the impact produced by groundwater discharge on the hydrological and oxygen conditions of the Razdolnaya River Estuary during the period of winter runoff low and freeze-up, based on radionuclides ²²³Ra, ²²⁴Ra, ²²⁸Ra.

2.1. Study area

The transboundary Razdolnaya River (China — Primorsky Territory of the Russian Federation) flows into the northern part of Amur Bay (Peter the Great Bay, Sea of Japan) (Fig. 1). The estuary measures about 50 km in length and is located within the boggy Razdolnenskaya depression and the northern part of Amur Bay (Fig. 1). The Razdolnaya River catchment area is 16,800 km². The average discharge of the river when averaged over a period of 10 years from 2008 (http://gmvo.skniivh.ru/) is 97.8 m³/s. The water regime of Razdolnaya River is characterised by the period of steady winter runoff low, with an average monthly river flow of 2 to 3 m³/s in January and February, and an absolute minimum stream flow of 0.3 m³/s in February. Spring floods can be observed in May. The peaks of spring floods are about ten times higher than the average annual discharge of the river. The absolute discharge peaks exceed 3,000 m³/s during the summer and autumn floods in occasional years. In the course of freeze-up period from late November to early April, a saltwater wedge tends to penetrate the Razdolnaya River Estuary at a distance of up to 28 km from the river mouth bar (Zvalinsky et al. 2010). During this period, the water salinity is more than 34 in Amursky Bay and up to 26 above the bar (Zvalinsky et al. 2010). The average spring tide in Peter the Great Bay ranges from 15 to 20 cm, which makes it possible to classify the Razdolnaya River Estuary as a micro-tidal estuary with strong water stratification.

2.2. Field work, hydrological surveys and water sampling

Study of the structure of the water column was performed using a Conductivity-Temperature-Density (CTD) and Turbidity sensor package (Sea Bird 19Plus) equipped with an additional optical DO sensor ARO2-Infinity (JFE Advantech Co., Ltd., Japan) with an accuracy of 2% in the range of 0-200% water saturation with oxygen. On 10–13 February 2020, water samples were taken from the surface and bottom horizons using a 5-litre Niskin bottle at 17 stations. Water samples were taken to measure radionuclides dissolved in water (²²³Ra, ²²⁴Ra, ²²⁸Ra), stable isotopes (δ¹⁸О and δD) and salinity (S). In addition to salinity profiling by Sea Bird 19Plus in each Niskin bottle, salinity was also measured by salinometer (Guildline Autosal 8400B) with accuracy of 0.002.

We also took water temperature and DO concentration measurements in three water wells located in the estuary valley. Prior to measurements, we pumped out water from these wells to measure characteristics of the inflow groundwater. The value of 4°C was typical of groundwater temperatures, and oxygen concentrations were close to zero.

2.3. Radium isotopes measurements

Water samples with a volume of 25 liters were filtered through 1 mm polypropylene cartridges and Mn fiber at a flow rate of maximum 1 L min⁻¹ to obtain a Ra extraction efficiency of at least 97% (Moore. 2008). Radioisotopes ²²⁴Ra and ²²³Ra were measured using the Radium Delayed Coincidence Counter (RaDeCC) (Moore and Arnold, 1996). To make correction for the supported ²²⁴Ra, we conducted the second set of measurements in 2 to 6 weeks so that the initial excessive activity of ²²⁴Ra (ex ²²⁴Ra) could reach secular equilibrium with ²²⁸Th, which was also absorbed on Mn fiber (Moore and Arnold, 1996). The activity of ²²⁸Ra was measured after 6 to 12 months, with correction for the decay of ²²⁸Th, which had initially been sorbed onto Mn fiber from original samples (Moore. 2008). To calibrate RaDeCC systems for ²²⁴Ra, ²²³Ra and ²²⁸Ra measurements using ²³²Th standards as described by Moore and Cai (2013).

2.4. Measurements of δ¹⁸О and δD

Isotopic signature measurements of water were conducted by a laser analyser Picarro L-2130-i. Interlaboratory reference samples were used as standards pegged to V-SMOW-2 standard. Reproducibility of the measurements was 0.1‰ для δ¹⁸О и 0.5‰ для δD.

2.5. Mooring observations

Long-term temperature measurements were made using sensors on the multiparametric Water Quality Monitor ((WQM) Wet-Labs, USA) installed on the bottom layer (depth of 7 m). The location of the WQM station is shown in Fig. 1. The period of deployment of the WQM meter was three months (January ‒ March 2014).

3.1. Isotopes and spatial temperature responce to groundwater discharge in mixing zone

The saltwater wedge is a mix of seawater and freshwater with salinity of about 25 psu (Fig. 2) and is annually observed in the winter season in the Razdolnaya R. estuary (Zvalinsky et al. 2010). The topographic depression (stations 6–11, Fig. 2) is separated from the sea by a bar and shallow liman lake about 5 km long that prevents penetration of the seawater with salinity of 34 psu even during syzygial tides.

An extreme value of all three radium isotopes is registered in the deepest-water cross-section at Station 6 and their overall increased activity rate is registered along the topographic depression at Stations 5–11 (Table 1). This extreme value is due to a fivefold decrease in the activity of ²²⁴Ra isotopes at stations 5 to 11. However, the activity of ²²³Ra isotopes decreased by less than two times. From this, it follows that the period of advective water exchange in this part of the mixing zone is less than the half-life of ²²³Ra radionuclides. However, this period exceeds the half-life of ²²⁴Ra radionuclides (3.66 days). No such variation can be traced in the activity value of ²²⁸Ra isotopes, excluding st. 6, which is not a surprise since the time spent by waters in the estuary is significantly less than the half-life of these radionuclides (half-life is 5.6 years). The names of water types are as follows: RW — river water, GWD —groundwater discharge, SW — seawater, HTBW — high-turbidity brackish water (mixture of RW and SW), and are presented based on the activity of isotopes Ra in end-members water (Table 1).

Table 1 Depth (m), salinity (S), activities radium isotopes (dpm 100L⁻¹) in bottom layer of the estuary. RW: river water, GWD: groundwater discharge, TGW: transformed groundwater, SW: seawater, HTBW: high-turbidity brackish water (mixture of RW and SW).

St. № / water mass	Depth	S	ex²²³Ra	ex²²⁴Ra	²²³Ra/²²⁴Ra	²²⁸Ra	²²⁸Ra/²²⁴Ra
1 / RW	2.3	0.14	0.14 ± 0.01	9.81 ± 0.15	0.014	5.37 ± 0.03	0.5
2 / RW	1.6	0.14	0.04 ± 0.02	5.64 ± 0.30	0.007	13.75 ± 0.05	2.4
3 / RW	3.7	0.13	0.19 ±0.11	1.68 ± 0.24	0.113	10.07 ± 0.08	6.0
4 / RW	2.5	0.2	0.28 ± 0.10	1.8 ± 0.13	0.156	12.26 ± 0.14	6.8
5 / GWD	3.5	21.66	1.41 ± 0.11	47.01 ± 0.15	0.030	84.91 ± 0.14	1.8
6 / GWD	7.9	25.19	2.85 ± 0.17	66.32 ± 0.60	0.043	159.15 ± 0.13	2.4
7 / GWD	7.5	25.23	1.85 ± 0.12	48.43 ± 0.69	0.038	70.69 ± 0.14	1.5
8 / GWD	6.9	25.37	1.94 ± 0.17	30.02 ± 0.60	0.065	92.21 ± 0.12	3.1
9 / GWD	6.6	25.19	1.09 ± 0.08	26.57 ± 0.33	0.041	79.49 ± 0.15	3.0
10 / GWD	6.3	24.95	1.06 ± 0.07	19.29 ± 0.32	0.055	43.52 ± 0.15	2.3
11 / GWD	4.3	25.4	1.53 ± 0.13	13.3 ± 0.30	0.115	59.55 ± 0.14	4.5
12 / HTBW	1.3	10.49	0.77 ± 0.09	22.73 ± 0.25	0.034	39.63 ± 0.15	1.7
13 / HTBW	0.6	16.63	1.45 ± 0.14	30.6 ± 0.43	0.047	49.91 ± 0.12	1.6
14 / SW	3.8	32.34	0.29 ± 0.10	9.96 ± 0.49	0.029	24.82 ± 0.11	2.5
15 / SW	7.7	34.07	0.02 ± 0.05	0.9 ± 0.49	0.022	19.79 ± 0.16	22.0
16 / SW	15.2	34.32	0.08 ± 0.05	3.82 ± 0.24	0.021	29.67 ± 0.14	7.8
17 / SW	16.8	34.36	0.58 ± 0.05	12.39 ± 0.36	0.047	29.96 ± 0.16	2.4

As seen in Fig. 3, the highest total activity rate of radium isotopes ²²⁴Ra, ²²³Ra and ²²⁸Ra is observed at Station 6 and an increased activity rate is observed all across the topographic depression with its saltwater wedge. The discharge of groundwater in the deepest section of the estuary creates an increased radium activity rate and a positive temperature anomaly for 15 km (Fig. 3b). This is explained by the fact that, with distance from the estuary bar, groundwater temperatures rise from below-zero values in the sea to +4°C within the estuary floodplain (see the section on objects and methods).

3.2. Oxygen response to groundwater discharge

A negative correlation between the three radium isotopes and oxygen saturation exists in the estuary’s near-bottom waters in winter (Fig. 4). Groundwater normally has a low level of DO and, when it discharges to the shelf, there is a negative correlation between radium radionuclides and the oxygen saturation of water (McCoy et al. 2011; Peterson et al. 2016; Guo et al. 2020).

The negative correlation of oxygen saturation is best of all seen for short-lived isotopes ²²⁴Ra (Fig. 4). That is why we use the activity rate of ²²⁴Ra relative to salinity (Fig. 5a) to show that each body of water also has an DO signature (Fig. 5b). The drop of oxygen saturation of the near-bottom waters to 67% corresponded to the waters with a maximum activity rate of excess isotopes ²²⁴Ra, and, generally, the near-bottom waters in groundwater discharge zone with virtually invariable salinity at Stations 5–11 were under-saturated with DO. At the same time, water is oversaturated with oxygen up to 150% at salinity more than 30 psu beyond the estuary bar (Fig. 5). The decrease of oxygen saturation to 35% in the vicinity of Station 5 with a relatively small depth of 3.5 m is explained by over-splash of oxygen-low waters from the downstream reach as there are reversing currents in this area.

In the warm season, the saltwater wedge in the Razdolnaya River Estuary has an DO close to zero due to the intensification of production-destruction processes as well as to the high water turbidity and, accordingly, low photosynthetically active radiation of the near-bottom water layer (Tishchenko et al. 2017). However, suspended matter concentrations are relatively low in winter and, the photic zone normally extends to the bottom everywhere, with nutrients concentrations being very high (Zvalinsky et al. 2010). That is why photosynthesis prevails over organic matter destruction and oxygen oversaturation is observed in the Razdolnaya River Estuary in winter. Not excepting that the key factor of DO-specific conditions for the Razdolnaya River Estuary is the balance of organic matter production-destruction (Zvalinsky et al. 2010), results in Fig. 5 are indicative of groundwater discharge influence on formation of DO-specific conditions of the water area.

3.3. Synoptically temperature variability as a response to the groundwater discharge and scenario of the formation DO regime in the estuary

The data indicate that a temperature anomaly is formed in the area of groundwater discharge influence (Fig. 3b), i.e., the bottom water temperature makes it possible to track groundwater discharge intensity indirectly over time. The bottom water temperature variation which took place at station 9 (Fig. 1) between 27 January 2014 and 11 March 2014 indicates that the groundwater discharge increased during the entire freeze-up period (Fig. 6). Clear extreme values can be observed against the background of a general increase in water temperature in the bottom layer of the estuary at roughly 2-week intervals (Fig. 6). These extremums coincide with the two-week tidal cycle (http://esimo.oceanography.ru/tides/). Irregular daily tides were observed on the dates indicated in Fig. 6. A temperature decrease in between the mentioned dates falls on semi-daily tide cycles in the Amursky Bay.

We believe that the link between the sea and the area of groundwater discharge is the upper highly permeable aquifer (pebbles and sand) and its thickness is 20 m (Chelnokov et al. 2008). This is the alluvial-marine complex extends on 30 kilometers from the Razdolnaya River mouth bar and seawaters penetrate into it (Chelnokov et al. 2008). It is known that еhe saline groundwater intrusion distance balance is mainly subject to the intensity with which aquifers are loaded with meteoric water and the difference in the density of sea and fresh water (Michael et al. 2005; Vallejos et al. 2015; Rodellas et al. 2017). Tides generate complex groundwater fluctuations in aquifers (Carr and Der Kamp 1969; Smith 2004). In turn, diurnal and semidiurnal variations in recirculated groundwater flux also have a period of tidal sea level fluctuations (Taniguchi et al. 2002; Burnett et al. 2006; Kobayashi et al. 2017). Tidal fluctuations of the water level are possible in small lagoons separated from the sea by land and even in water wells connected with the sea via the upper aquifer at a distance of many kilometers (Werner et al. 2013). If the saline groundwater intrusion meets with fresh land waters in the upper aquifer, density gradients in the transitional zone cause convective circulation and groundwater discharge occurs in the vicinity of this underground hydrological front (Smith and Turner, 2001). Thus, the main drivers for groundwater discharge increasing in the inner Razdolnaya River Estuary during freeze-up and winter runoff low period are as follows: increased proportion of seawater in the upper aquifer, slow water dynamics as a result of ice formation / low river runoff, increased duration of hydraulic head during the period of daily tides and the high hydraulic conductivity of the aquifer.

The combination of a high radium isotopes activity rate, above-zero temperature anomaly and oxygen saturation drop show that the saltwater wedge with salinity of 25.2 psu (Fig. 2) is formed in winter totally as a result of discharge of groundwater. It is known that relatively short-period seawater recirculation in the upper aquifer is accompanied by enrichment with short-lived radium isotopes ²²⁴Ra and ²²³Ra only (Rodellas et al. 2017). Admixing freshwater in this aquifer will bring long-lived isotopes ²²⁸Ra as well (Bear et al. 1999; Taniguchi et al. 2002; Moore 2008; Burnett et al. 2006). A simultaneous increase of concentrations of short-lived radium isotopes ²²⁴Ra and ²²³Ra and long-lived isotopes ²²⁸Ra can be anticipated in case of discharge of waters consisting of a mix of pore water, fresh groundwater and recirculated sea groundwater. The composition of stable isotopes δ¹⁸O and δD (Fig. 7) in the discharge zone is subject to the sea water / river water ratio. It is considered that the main reason for groundwater discharge is that recirculated water has penetrated into the upper aquifer during the winter runoff low period and further discharged into the deepest section lines of the estuary.

We have observed a special case of groundwater discharge, which is probably typical for channel type estuaries with a long low-water period. As mentioned above, the seasonal variability of Razdolnaya River discharge is large and is characterised by a 500-fold difference between winter and summer. This creates favourable conditions for seawater recirculation in the upper aquifer during the winter runoff low period. We suggest as the landward movement of seawater in coastal aquifers oxygen in the aquifer becomes depleted, and further groundwater seepage through the oxygen free layer of sediments rich in organic matter also results in oxygen depletion, similar to processes shown and discussed in other papers (Guo et al. 2020; Moore and Joye, 2021). As a result, in the course of interaction between the upper aquifer and estuary, we see oxygen saturation rates in the near-bottom layer reducing toward the estuary top, simultaneous increase of water temperatures and radium isotopes activity rates.

Groundwater discharge increases the temperature of the saltwater wedge amid relatively cold river and sea waters. Seawater recirculation in the upper aquifer proposed as a source of groundwater discharge for the Razdolnaya River Estuary. The temperature extremes of the saltwater wedge observed in the saline groundwater discharge area at an interval of about 2 weeks can be explained by saline groundwater discharge variations related to the variability of tidal into the upper aquifer due to diurnal and semidiurnal tides in the receiving basin. The oxygen saturation of the estuary’s near-bottom waters has a negative correlation with the activity rate of isotopes ²²³Ra, ²²⁴Ra and ²²⁸Ra. That is why we state here in that the groundwater discharge may be an important factor in formation of oxygen-specific conditions in many other channel-estuaries, seasonally covered with ice, in the low-water level period, as well.

This work was carried out with the financial support of the Russian Science Foundation (grant no. 21-77-00028), programs of the POI FEB RAS (121-21500052-9, AAAA-A20-120011090005-7).

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Pavel Yu. Semkin: Writing - original draft, Conceptualization, Visualization, Investigation, Funding acquisition. Pavel Ya. Tishchenko: Writing - review & editing, Conceptualization, Investigation, Funding acquisition. Aleksandr N. Charkin: Writing - review & editing, Investigation, Methodology, Formal analysis, Investigation, Conceptualization, Funding acquisition. Galina Yu. Pavlova: Writing - review & editing. Ekaterina V. Anisimova: Formal analysis, Investigation. Yuri A. Barabanshchikov: Methodology, Formal analysis, Investigation. Tatyana A. Mikhaylik: Methodology, Formal analysis, Investigation. Petr P. Tishchenko: Writing - review & editing, Investigation.

The authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose.

This work was carried out with the financial support of the Russian Science Foundation (grant no. 21-77-00028), programs of the POI FEB RAS (121-21500052-9, AAAA-A20-120011090005-7).

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You are reading this latest preprint version

Temperature and Oxygen Response to Groundwater Discharge in the Ice-Covered Razdolnaya River Estuary (Sea of Japan)

Status:

Version 1

Abstract

Figures

1. Introduction

2. Material And Methods

2.1. Study area

2.2. Field work, hydrological surveys and water sampling

2.3. Radium isotopes measurements

2.4. Measurements of δ¹⁸О and δD

2.5. Mooring observations

3. Results And Discussion

3.1. Isotopes and spatial temperature responce to groundwater discharge in mixing zone

3.2. Oxygen response to groundwater discharge

3.3. Synoptically temperature variability as a response to the groundwater discharge and scenario of the formation DO regime in the estuary

4. Conclusions

Declarations

References

Status:

Version 1

Temperature and Oxygen Response to Groundwater Discharge in the Ice-Covered Razdolnaya River Estuary (Sea of Japan)

Status:

Version 1

Abstract

Figures

1. Introduction

2. Material And Methods

2.1. Study area

2.2. Field work, hydrological surveys and water sampling

2.3. Radium isotopes measurements

2.4. Measurements of δ18О and δD

2.5. Mooring observations

3. Results And Discussion

3.1. Isotopes and spatial temperature responce to groundwater discharge in mixing zone

3.2. Oxygen response to groundwater discharge

3.3. Synoptically temperature variability as a response to the groundwater discharge and scenario of the formation DO regime in the estuary

4. Conclusions

Declarations

References

Status:

Version 1

2.4. Measurements of δ¹⁸О and δD