Prevalence and Psychosocial Risk Factors of Substance Abuse: The Case of Dire Dawa University Students

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-1332258/v1

This study aims to investigate the prevalence and psychosocial risk factors of substance use among Dire Dawa University students. In Ethiopia, substance abuse is a prevailing problem in developing countries. The study was employed a cross-sectional survey design, and the total sample size was 388. The study employed a multistage sampling technique and the students were selected randomly from the population. The total sample size is 386. This study was used questionnaires. The research was employed descriptive and inferential statistics to analyze the current study using SPSS. The lifetime prevalence of substance abuse, specifically, alcohol, chat, tobacco, cannabis, and cocaine was 58.3%, 52.3%, 28.9%, 24.5%, and 14.5% respectively. Peer influence, mental health problems, academic factors, easy drug availability, trouble relationship with parents, and lack of regulation significantly predict substance abuse at R [0.68)=, p<0.05). Specifically, peer influence, drug availability and, mental problems were the major risk factors for abusing substances. The psychosocial risk factors of substance abuse were multiple pathways involved in the abuse of the substance. Thus, risk factors like psychological, social, and environmental factors mutually influence each other in causing substance abuse. The finding revealed that the level of substances abuse among DDU students across their socio-demographic characteristics; there is a significant mean difference (t = 3.1, p<0.05) in the level of substance abuse between males and females.

Prevalence

psychosocial risk factors

substance abuse

Dire Dawa University

Substance use in Ethiopia prevailing problem in developing countries. Alcohol, khat, and tobacco are the most commonly abused substances. 2016 Ethiopian Demographic and Health Survey showed that 35% of women and about half of men (46%) reported drinking alcohol at some point in their lives. It also reported that 12% of women and 27% of men report having ever chewed chat. About 4.2% of men aged 15– 59 years and 0.6% of women aged 15–49 years are cigarette smokers. The study indicates that alcohol consumption, nearly 41% had consumed alcohol during the past 30 days before the survey. About 36.6% of young people, 15–29 years of age were alcohol users. The proportion of men who consumed alcohol (46.6%) was higher than that of women (33.5%). The survey also reported that 16% of respondents were current khat chewers and 7% of current khat chewers drank alcohol while using khat (Federal Ministry of Health [FMoH], 2016).

Of the young segment of the population, college and university students are at risk of such problems as alcohol, khat, and tobacco abuse. Among some studies done in Ethiopian universities and colleges, a study in Axum University showed a lifetime prevalence of khat chewing 28.7%, alcohol drinking 34.5%, and cigarette smoking 9.5% (Gebreslassie e al., 2013). A study in Addis Ababa University showed that 31.4% drunk alcohol, 14.1% ever chewed khat,

8.7% ever smoked a cigarette (Deressa & Azazh, 2011).

A study in eastern Harerge and Dire Dawa reveals that the lifetime prevalence of substance is 62.4%. Moreover, 41.0% of the students chewed khat at least once in their lifetime and the current use of khat is 23.6 (Gezahegn, et al. 2014). Furthermore, alcohol drinking habits were 50.2% reported that they drank alcohol at least once in their lifetime while 20% were drinking alcohol over the last 30 days before the study (Gezahegn, et al. 2014). The study showed also that 22% smoked cigarettes at least once in their lifetime whereas 10.8% of the respondents have smoked cigarettes in the past 30 days. Furthermore, 178 (17.4%) of the study participants used illicit drugs like hashish at least once in their lifetime. 7.4% of the participants have used illicit drugs in the last 30 days.

Many risk factors can exacerbate drug abusers in several ways. For instance, genetic, psychological, and social factors would be the immediate risk for the kick-off of substance abuse. Patients with depression and/or anxiety disorders are at a higher risk for abusing one or more substances. Moreover, Aggressive and reckless traits and social factors such as peer pressure at school or work as well as family patterns of substance use (APA, 2013). The heavier peer substance use exaggerated positive expectations of the effects of alcohol, and suboptimal ways of coping (APA, 2013). Having a family history of substance abuse, for example, puts a child at risk for drug abuse. In addition, in an environment with no drug-abusing peers and strong antidrug norms, that child is less likely to become a drug abuser.

Gender may also determine how an individual responds to risk factors (Elizabeth & Robertson, 2003). Research on relationships within the family shows that adolescent girls respond positively to parental support and discipline, while adolescent boys sometimes respond negatively. These poor relationships, in turn, can lead to social rejection, a negative school experience, and problem behaviors including drug abuse (Elizabeth & Robertson, 2003). Association with drugabusing peers is often the immediate risk for exposing adolescents to drug abuse and delinquent behavior.

In general, substance abuse is a prevailing and persistent social phenomenon in our country. Dire Dawa University is an institution that resides where drug misusing is widespread & so that it is more venerable than other areas of Ethiopia. Although some researchers tried to study the prevalence of substance abuse, the researcher believes that it is a serious issue that needs further investigation, particularly the psychosocial risk factors of substance abuse among Dire Dawa University. Beyond this, the research tries to indicate the ways of coping strategies of substance abuse. Unlike the international arena, there are scarce findings related to psychosocial factors among students in Ethiopian Universities, particularly in Dire Dawa.

Study Design

The study was employed a cross-sectional survey design, which applied quantitative methods of approach.

Study Area

Dire Dawa city is found in the eastern part of Ethiopia in which substance abuse is viewed as a common culture rather than as a behavioral disorder. In addition, Dire Dawa town is the place where the most common drug exchanging area. The study was conducted on Dire Dawa university students. Currently the in Dire Dawa University there were more than 10,664 students enrolled in both regular annually.

Populations and Sampling Techniques

The target population was all Dire Dawa university students (i.e. 10, 664). The sample of the study population was selected using multistage sampling techniques. First, students were stratified to their specific colleges to which the total sample size is distributed proportionally. Based on the sample size in each college, one or more departments were selected from each college using the lottery method. The total sample size in the college was distributed to the selected departments. Then students were classified into strata using stratified sampling to incorporate different variables (sex, age, and study year). Finally, students were selected randomly from the source population.

Hence, the sample size calculated using a formula:

((1.96)² x .5(.5)) / (.05)², at 95% confidence level, .5 standard deviation, and a margin of error (confidence interval) of +/- 5%. Thus, the sample size, 𝑛 = 384.

Data Collection Instrument

This study was used questionnaires. The questionnaire was developed after a review of previous related literature and researches.

3.4. Data Collection Procedures

The researcher contacted and inform on the purpose and procedures of research for participants. First, a pilot study was carried out in Dire Dawa University with students who are did not take part in the actual participant. The researcher explicitly explained to the research participants the rationale for the present study to garner their cooperation. So that the research was intended to gather through the questionnaire. Then, questionnaires were distributed to participants or students. Following that, all the questionnaires were collected back, tall, and summarized for data interpretation. The data was collected using a self-administered structured questionnaire, which prepare in English. The data collectors were degree holders who can guide the students to complete the questionnaire.

Data Analyzing Method

The research was employed descriptive and inferential statistics to analyze the current study using SPSS 20. Moreover, the data were analyzed using multiple regression analysis to predict psychosocial risk factors associated with substance use. This study also used two-way ANOVA to analyze the level difference of difference in substance about with different demographic factors.

Ethical Considerations

Ethical permission was attained from the IRB/RAD of Dire Dawa University. Written consent was also taken for students after explaining the purpose of the study. To ensure confidentiality, their name and other personal identities were not registered in the questionnaire. Moreover, the explanation was forwarded to the participants concerning their right to withdraw from the study at any time in case they feel uncomfortable.

This section presents the prevalence, risk factors, and managing mechanisms of substance abuse among Dire Dawa University students. So that it is presented in five major sections. In the first section, the socio-demographic data of respondents is thoroughly presented. In section two, the lifetime, the frequency & the degree of prevalence of substance abuse is presented. In section three, the risk factors of substance abuse are precisely presented. Section four of the results presents the demographic difference of students concerning their level of substance abuse. And finally, section five presented the managing mechanisms of substance abuse.

Socio-Demographic Characteristics of DDU students

Age, sex, religion, year level, place of origin, region, monthly income, parenting style, mother's education, father's education, family structure, monthly income, parenting style, and family structure were considered as the socio-demographic characteristics of respondents. In this section, each characteristic was summarized using frequency and percentage hereunder.

Table 1: Demographic characteristics of respondents

R.no.	Subject characteristics	Frequency	Percent
Sex	Male	168	43.2
	Female	220	56.8
	Total	388	100
Age	Below 17	42	10.8
	18-35	346	89.1
	Total	388	100
Religion	Orthodox	108	26.3
	Muslim	41	10.56
	Catholic	14	3.6
	Protestant	223	57.47
	Other	2	0.51
	Total	388	100
Region	Oromia	199	51.28
	Amara	126	32.47
	Somali	35	0.09
	SNNP	9	0.02
	Other	19	0.048
	Total	388	100
Parenting style	Permissive	67	17.26
	Democrat	201	51.8
	autocrat	63	16.23
	neglectful	57	0.14
	Total	388	100
Family structure	Single parent Nuclear	105 260	27 67
	Step	3	0.7
	Extended	18	4.6
	Child headed	2	0.5
	Total	388	100

As shown in table 1, the majority of the students-220 (56.8%) - who participated in the current study were male and 168(43.2%) of them were female by their sex. Concerning their age, 42(10.8%) of the total respondents were below years old, and 346(89.1%) of the respondents were in the age range between 18-35 years. Concerning the religion of students who participated in the study, 108(26.3%), 41(10.56%), 223(57.47%), and 14(3.6%) of them followed Orthodox, Muslim, Protestant, and Catholic religions, where 2(10.56%) of them have been followed other types of religion. Concerning year level, 144(37.11%) have been enrolled in freshman program, 55(14.8) was a second year, 172(44.3%) was the third year and 17(4.4%) of them was fourthyear & above students. Concerning region, 199(51.28%) of the students come from Oromia, 126(32.47%) of students come from Amhara, 35(0.09%) of students come from Somali, 9(0.02) of students come from Oromia SNNP and 19(0.048%) of the respondents come from other regions of Ethiopia.

Concerning their parenting style, 67(17.26%) of the respondents stated that they were raised by a permissive parenting style. Moreover, 201(51.8%) of the respondents stated that they were raised by democrat parenting style, 63(16.23%) of the respondents stated that they were raised by autocrat parenting style, and 57(14.7%) of the respondents stated that they raised by neglectful parenting style. Finally, the family structure, 105(27%) of the respondents were raised with a single parent (either with their mother or father), 260(67%) of the respondents were raised with nuclear family (with their mother & father), 3(0.7%) of the respondents raised with step-parent and 18(4.6%) of the respondents raised with child-headed family.

Prevalence of Substance Abuse among Dire Dawa University Students

Table 2: The lifetime prevalence of common substances of abuse

Status	Alcohol	Chat	Tobacco	Cannabis	Cocaine	Other substances
	F %	F %	F %	F %	F %	F %
Yes	226 58.3	203 52.3	112 28.9	88 24.5	56 14.5	165 46.5
No	162 41.7	185 47.7	276 71.1	293 75.5	332 85.5	223 53.5
Total	388 100	388 100	388 100	381 100	379 100	388 100

According to table 4, 226 (58.3%) of the students have been used alcohol at a time in their life, whereas 162 (41.7%) of students haven’t used alcohol. 203(52.3%) of the students have been using the chat at a time in their life, whereas 185(47.7%) of students haven’t used chat. 112(28.9%) of the students have been used tobacco at a time in their life, whereas 276(71.1%) of students haven't used tobacco. 88(24.5%) of the students have been using cannabis at a time in their life, whereas 293(75.5%) of students haven't used cannabis. 56(14.5%) of the students have been used cocaine at a time in their life, whereas 332(85.5%) of students didn't use cocaine. 165(46.5%) of the students have been using any kind of substance at a time in their life, whereas 223(53.5%) of students haven't used it.

The Psychosocial Risk Factors of Common Substances of Abuse among DDU Students

Table 3: The psychosocial risk factors of common substances of abuse

R square	Sig.		95.0% Confidence Interval for B
0.68	0.00	Beta values	Lower Bound Upper Bound
Psychosocial risk factors
Peer influence 0.01 Ease availability of		.904	-.015	.014
.0012 substances		.712	.370	1.053
Poor regulation 0.127		.33	-.309	.562
Lack of religious affiliation 0.023		0.25
Low academic achievement 0.030		.18	-.495	.375
Mental problem .011 Trouble relationship with		.69	.405	.992
.031		.55	.45	.519

parents

As shown in table 6, peer influence, mental problem, academic factors, easy drug availability, trouble relationship with parents, and lack of regulation significantly predict substance abuse at R[0.68)=, p<0.05) so that 68% of substance abusing states determined by these factors. The beta values-the degree of prediction for each factor as indicated in the table peer influence (B=0.9), ease availability of substances (0.712), mental health problem (B=0.69), trouble relationship with parents (B=0.55), poor regulation (0.33), lack of religious affiliation (0.25) and academic initiation (0.18). Specifically, peer influence, drug availability and, mental problems were the major risk factors for abusing substances.

There are no sole factors for why some peoples engage in substance abuse. The psychological & social risk factors are implicated in multiple pathways. Thus, risk factors like psychological, social, and environmental factors mutually influence each other in causing substance abuse. These factors were found to be associated with ever using, frequency of use, and heavy use of substances (alcohol, chat, cigarettes, cannabis, and other drugs).

Social and environmental factors

The respondents told that peer substance use, drug availability on their residence, lack of religious affiliation, and weak legal sanctions were the major risk factors and the immediate kick-off for substance intoxication. The immediate friends /peer he/she engaged in substance abuse for substance abuse were their peers. Young students who believed substance makes it easier to socialize were shown in later years to have increased their use of substances over time to higher rates than their peers without this belief.

Some of the students told that “we are here, in Dire Dawa substance abuse particularly chewing chat behavior considered as an as means of socialization so that the communities influence seen as letting factor to engage in substance”.

Those who have inhabited in Dire Dawa, substance was high substance abuse, the student perception for substance related quite differently and eventually, they may have a tendency to become substance abusers.

Selling & using substances particularly chat have been in every area of the city without any probation even in schools, health care, recreation areas, and everyone’s hone.

The religious deep faith and trust in God/Allah tend to be the inner strength and the development of a sense of meaning and purpose to life, thus providing an informal means of social control and reducing the likelihood of substance abuse. Students with low involvement in religious or spiritual faith and practice had a more tendency to be free to binge by substance. However, in Muslim students chewing chat is believed as a means of praying way with Allah. Associated with belief, Muslim students’ high tendency to chew chat behavior.

Moreover, the lack of access to education, high levels of unemployment and overcrowding, poverty as well as lack of economic opportunities can also contribute to negative behaviors like substance abuse.

Psychological factors

The psychological factors include family influence, poor relationship with parents, lack of familial support and supervision, early alcohol use, stress, low-grade point, low self-esteem, and mental illness. A family history of substance is a deep-rooted risk factor for individuals initiating substance abuse. In addition, when family troubled relationships with drug-abusing students, they may be liable for substance abuse to forget the stressful relationship. Some students abuse substances to reduce stress.

While students encounter negative anxiety or depression, expecting that substance particularly alcohol will relieve these feelings, and having a coping style characterized by avoiding rather than confronting life issues all combine to make it more likely that an individual will cope with stress.

Other psychological risk factors include high impulsivity, impression seeking, and openness to experience. Students' cognitive appraisal or beliefs about substance abuse are critical causes in determining abuse.

The reasons mentioned for chewing khat by the respondents were as follows: some of the students said that they started to chew with the belief of chat can improve alertness, increase memory, and be sociable.

The Mean Difference of Substances of Abuse across Socio-Demographic Variables

As indicated earlier, one of the objectives of the study wants to assess the level of substances abuse among DDU students across their socio-demographic characteristics. Sex, religion, place, region, monthly income, parenting style, family structure, monthly income, parenting style, and family structure were considered as the socio-demographic features of study participants. Accordingly, independent samples t-test and one-way ANOVA were computed to test if there were statistically significant mean differences across the independent groups. While independent samples-test were computed for sex (male & female), one-way ANOVA was computed for religion, place, region, monthly income, parenting style, family structure, monthly income, parenting style, and family structure.

Gender difference on the level of substance abuse

As indicated earlier, in this study, male and female respondents were computed in terms of the level of substance abuse using independent samples t-test. This section presents the results of the study as summarized in the following table hereunder;

Table 4: the gender difference in substances of abuse

Variables

Male (n=201)

Female

(n=183)

M

SD

M SD

t-value

df

Sig.

95% CI

Lower Upper

Level of abuse

16.75

2.47

14.3 2.9

6.2

202

0.00

-3.1 -1.6

p<0.05; M=Mean; SD=Standard Deviation

Table 7 summarizes the results of the independent samples t-test among the level of substance abuse by their sex. According to the table, there was a significant mean difference (t (202) = 1.97, p<0.05) in the level of substance abuse between males and females. More importantly, if we observe students' mean scores, males' scores of the level of substance abuse (M=14.75,

SD=2.47) were higher than that of males 'scores of the level of substance abuse (M= 15.1, SD=

6.4).

Monthly income difference in substances of abuse

In this section, using one-way ANOVA results on the comparison of respondents having different income level categories concerning the level of the outcome variables are presented.

Table 5: Means, Standard deviations and One-way ANOVA on substances of abuse across income level

Varia bles

Less than

500 birrs

(n=54)

500-1000

(n=146)

1000-2000

(n=145)

>2000

(n=44)

M SD

F

Sig

.

95% CI

Lower Uppe

r

Abus

16.28 3.37

15.68 2.54

15.07 3.12

17.2 1.79

1.94

.00

-24.43 24.43

e 1

p˂0.05; M=mean; SD=standard deviation, CI= confidence interval

One-way ANOVA as shown in table 8, indicated significant mean differences in substance abuse (F[2.64)=1.94, p<0.05) among respondents of the students across different monthly income levels. Specifically, Tukey’s post hoc, indicates that students who earn less than 500 birrs have a significant difference from those students who earn above 2000 birr. Yet, respondents in this group were found to have no significant difference from students who earn between 500-1000 & above 1000-2000 birr. Similarly, students who earn above 2000 were found to have a significant difference from those students who earn between less than 500, 500-1000, and above 1000-2000 birr.

Parenting style difference in substances of abuse

Table 6: Parenting style difference in substances of abuse among DDU students

Variable

Permissive

(n=42)

democrat

(n=133)

Autocrat

(n=54)

neglectful

(n=20)

M SD

F

Sig.

95% CI

Lower Upper

abuse

15.

1.94 7

3.0 14.8

5

15.

3.4 59

15.6 0.5

0.11

0.02

-2.09 2.09

One-way ANOVA as shown in table 11, indicated significant mean differences in substance abuse (F [2.64] =0.11, p<0.05) among respondents of the study across parenting styles. As we observe the mean scores of respondents across categories, respondents who rose in permissive and neglectful have high mean scores than respondents who have democrat and autocrat parenting styles. Particularly, Tukey is post hoc, indicating that respondents who rose in permissive are found to have significant differences with respondents who rose with autocratic and neglectful parenting styles.

Treatment mechanisms for substances of abuse

Table 7: Treatment mechanisms for substances of abuse among DDU students

Frequency Table

Doing something Internet utilization Reading Discussion Ask clinician

Status F % F % F % F % F %

Yes 163 65.5 163 65.5 161 64.6 156 62.7 170 68.2

No 86 34.5 86 34.5 88 35.4 93 37.3 79 31.8

T 249 100.0 249 100.0 249 100 249 100.0 249 100

Table 12 as shown above, students used various ways mechanisms to abstain/cease from substance intoxication/abuse. As they respond 163 (65.5%) engage themselves or do something, 163 (65.5%) utilized the Internet, 161 (64.6%) of them read different books, 156 (62.7%) made free discussion on how to stop intoxication, and 170 (68.2%) of them find clinicians for special help. The majority of respondents' help-seeking from clinician/therapist is considered as the primary choice.

The Prevalence of Substance Abuse

As presented in the result section, the prevalence of different kinds of substances abuse was a high behavioral phenomenon. Drinking alcohols was a common & the most prevailing behavioral problem. The lifetime prevalence of drinking alcohol was (58.3%). Likely, Gezahegn et al. (2014) indicate that the prevalence of alcohol drinking habits in Dire Dawa and Haromia regions was 50.2%. They drank alcohol at least once in their lifetime while 20% were drinking alcohol over the last 30 days before the study. Another similar study conducted by Gebressilassie (2013) in the Aksum University, Tigray region, the lifetime prevalence of alcohol drinking is 34.5%.

Moreover, chewing chat was a concurrent overwhelming social phenomenon. The life time prevalence rate was 52.3% of the students were utilized chat in their lifetime. A similar study by Gezahegn, et al. (2014.) at Harerge and Dire Dawa reveals that the lifetime prevalence of chewed khat is 41.0% and the status of use of khat is 23.6. Another study conducted by Gebressilassie (2013) reveals that the lifetime prevalence of khat chewing is 28.7%. Moreover, FMOH (2016) reported that 16% of students were khat chewers.

In addition, the prevalence of tobacco was 28.9% at a time in their life. Similarly, Gezahegn et al. (2014), 22% of students smoke cigarettes at least once in their lifetime. Moreover, the prevalence of cannabis as presented 24.5% of the students have been using cannabis at a time in their life. A similar study conducted by Gezahegn et al. (2014) indicates that 17.4% of the study participants used illicit drugs like hashish at least once in their lifetime. In addition, 7.4% of the participants have used illicit drugs in the last 30 days. Furthermore, the prevalence of cocaine was 14.5% at a time in their life.

The Psychosocial Risk Factors of Common Substances of Abuse

Psychological factors, social factors, academic factors, environmental factors, and lack of interventional regulation significantly predict substance abuse at R [0.68) =, p<0.05) so that 68% of substance abusing states are determined by these factors. The beta values-the degree of prediction-indicates, psychological factors (B=0.55), social factors (B=0.9), academic initiation (B=0.69), cultural influence of community (0.712), university poor regulation (0.33) and Media (0.18). Specifically, psychological factors (depression), social factors (socialization), the cultural influence of community, and lack of interventional regulation were the major risk factors for abusing substances. According to Henok (2011), 237 (46.2%) used substance to get personal pleasure, 125 (24.4%) to get relief from tension, 89 (17.3%) due to peer influence, 50 (9.8%) to stay awake, 48 (9.4%) to be sociable, 25 (4.9%) to increase academic performance, 19 (3.7%) due to academic dissatisfaction, and 5 (0.9%) due to religious practice.

Similarly, in a study on Addis Ababa students, the prominent reasons for starting to use substances among students were due to peer pressure 42.8%, curiosity 29.2%, poor family relationship 17.9% and the least was stress 10.1%. Gezahegn e tal (2014) students reason for chewing chat was to increase academic performance (45.4%), to get personal pleasure (25.8%), to get relief from tension (23%), to stay awake(16.2%), due to peer influence(16.2%), due to academic dissatisfaction(10.3%), to get acceptance by others(6.4%), to be sociable, (5.5%) to increase pleasure during sex (4.1%), and due to religious practice(2.6%).

The Mean Difference of Substances of Abuse across Socio-Demographic Variables As shown in the result section, the study assessed the level of substances abuse among DDU students across their socio-demographic characteristics. Thus, the study tried to present sex, religion, place, region, monthly income, parenting style, family structure, monthly income, parenting style, and family structure of students.

In the study, there was a significant mean difference (t = 3.1, p<0.05) in the level of substance abuse between males and females. More significantly, males' scores of the level of substance abuse (M=14.75) were higher than that of males 'scores of the level of substance abuse (M= 15.1). Similarly, in a study by Gezahegn et al. (2014), male students had a strong association with substance use (AOR (95% CI), 3.11 (2.20, 4.39)). Similarly, the proportion of men who consumed alcohol (46.6%) was higher than that of women (33.5%). FMOH reported also, that 12% of women and 27% of men report having ever chewed chat. The Ethiopian Demographic and Health Survey (2016) reported that 35% of women and about half of men (46%) had drunk alcohol at some point in their lives.

Regarding monthly income, as indicated in the result, there are significant mean differences in substance abuse (F=1.94, p<0.05) among respondents of the students across monthly income levels. Specifically, students who earn 1000 to 2000 & above 2000 birr found to have a significant difference.

In the result, as indicated, there are significant mean differences in substance abuse (F =0.11, p<0.05) among respondents of the study across parenting styles. As we observe the mean scores of respondents across categories, respondents who rise in permissive and neglectful have high mean scores than respondents who have democrat and autocrat parenting styles. Particularly, Tukey's post hoc, indicates that respondents who were raised in permissive are found to have significant differences with respondents who rose with autocrat parenting style.

The overall prevalence of substance abuse among Dire Dawa university students is a serious and prevailing mental health problem. The most commonly used substance among students is alcohol and chat. Environmental (drug accessibility), psychological (depression), and social (norms & peer pressure) were found to be the immediate risk factors for substance abuse. Substance abuse in Dire Dawa University demands special attention, preventive & interventional measures. There must do preventive awareness-raising education and treatment on risks and consequences of substance abuse for substance abusers and suppliers around the University. This particular study has shown the extent and risk factors explicitly explained that must be intervene among Dire Dawa University.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to express my deepest and sincere thanks to the Dire Dawa University and the students who have participated in the current deed. I also extend my thanks to Dr. Solomon Zerihun, Research and community service vice president of Dire Dawa University for his enthusiastic and genuine concern in helping me reach my potential. He helped me to realize that I can achieve great things.

I would not have been able to complete this piece of work without the endless supply of love and support from my family.

DECLARATION

I declare that this research report is the product of my own effort and has not been presented to Dire Dawa university or any other institution in the same or different form for any purpose other than that for which I am now engaged in and that all sources used for the research report I used have been duly acknowledged and Dire Dawa University is the funding source of the study.

Mulatu Desalew (M.sc. in clinical psychology),

Lecturer at Dire Dawa University 06/02/2022

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No competing interests reported.

Prevalence and Psychosocial Risk Factors of Substance Abuse: The Case of Dire Dawa University Students

Status:

Version 1

Abstract

Introduction

Methods

Study Design

Study Area

Populations and Sampling Techniques

Data Collection Instrument

3.4. Data Collection Procedures

Data Analyzing Method

Ethical Considerations

Results

Socio-Demographic Characteristics of DDU students

Prevalence of Substance Abuse among Dire Dawa University Students

The Psychosocial Risk Factors of Common Substances of Abuse among DDU Students

Social and environmental factors

Psychological factors

The Mean Difference of Substances of Abuse across Socio-Demographic Variables

Gender difference on the level of substance abuse

Monthly income difference in substances of abuse

Parenting style difference in substances of abuse

Treatment mechanisms for substances of abuse

Frequency Table

Discussion

The Prevalence of Substance Abuse

The Psychosocial Risk Factors of Common Substances of Abuse

Conclusion

Declarations

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

DECLARATION

References

Additional Declarations

Status:

Version 1