In the present study, males do major farming activities (98%). Correspondingly, Waichman et al. [16] and Adjrah et al. [17] conveyed farming was controlled by males in Brazil (97.4%) and Togo (92%) respectively. An investigation by Nguetti et al. [17] also showed 90% of male farmers in Kenya. A large number of the small scale-farmers in the present study were illiterate, had no formal education and similarly, the large numbers of the small-scale farmers did not get training about the proper use of pesticides. Many of the farmers had got informal training from untrained farmers. Besides, another study by Negatu et al. [8] in Rift Valley Region in Ethiopia reported that no consideration by the local government extension workers and farmers cooperatives is given to training small scale farmers on the proper utilization of pesticide and no attention at all by local health extension services or other institutions such as the local labor and social affair or environmental office. Accordingly, these farmers could not read and understand pesticide labels about the proper and safe use of pesticides [16]. Accordingly, the application procedures are disorganized and largely by guess. This has significant inferences for the ecological and the well-being of the farmers. Farmers with high-level education are well-informed about pesticide safety, can read, recognize, and obey hazard signs on container labels, and intellectualized the effect of poor pesticide usage practices [18].
Pesticide use, source information in the study area seems to be affected by agrochemical retailers encouraged by pesticide sales, who were working their economical benefit in the farming societies and fascinated by attaining large sales of their pesticides. The influence of sellers on small-scale farmers’ pesticide applications was previously reported in Ethiopia around the Rift valley region [8] and other low-income countries [4, 7]. This result was also in agreement with the study by Mohanty et al. [15]. Other sources of information on pesticides such as colleagues or small informal shops, other farmers reported in the present study agreed to a study by Nalwanga and Ssempebwa [19] in Uganda. A great number of small-scale farmers buy pesticides from agrochemical retailers. However few retailers had a formal education about pesticides [20]. As a result, those pesticide retailers are unable to recommend farmers on appropriate use, supervision, and disposal of pesticide which may lead to improper use and handling of pesticides resulting in increased occupational and ecological hazards.
Our result demonstrates that class II pesticides mostly metalaxyl, cypermethrin, lambda-cyhalothrin, profenofos, and Mancozeb (unlikely to present acute hazard in normal use), are the most commonly used pesticides for small-scale farmers in the study area. Fortunately, none of the pesticides reported in the study are in WHO Class I. Unlike the previous studies in Ethiopia by Mengstie et al. [2], it was revealed that farms that used pesticides such as Aldicarb (imported only for the flower industry) which is classified as extremely hazardous class1a are found on vegetable farms. In several other developing countries, extremely toxic pesticides are used widely. Contrasting the present study, other studies have revealed extended use of class I pesticides in developing countries. In a survey study by Matthewsa et al. [21], in Cameroon, and Jørs et al. [22], in Bolivia for small-scale farmers, it was presented that one of the regularly used organophosphorus insecticides is called Methamidophos, which is categorized as highly hazardous class Ib [23]. Correspondingly in Vietnam, the use of class I pesticides, and many banned pesticides were reported [24]. Conversely, a survey study conducted by Ngowi et.al. [4] in Tanzania, has described a low magnitude of class I pesticides; while a study conducted in Ghana shows that small-scale farmers mostly used class II pesticides[25]. Similarly, a study by Anna et al. [26] in Uganda appeared that entirely the small-scale farmers used class II and III pesticides. In any case, class II pesticides are still classified as moderately hazardous and known to have an extremely negative impact on human wellbeing and the environment, and thus other less dangerous options should still be encouraged [7]. According to key informants(chemical retailer and agricultural expertise), interviews and field observation conducted concurrently in Ziway and Meki pesticide traders and their store of pesticides support the finding that the pesticides used are predominantly class II (moderate toxicity class) and no class I pesticides were identified in the retailers’ shops.
Providentially in the present study, small-scale farmers did not report the use of banned or have restricted use globally under the Stockholm Convention such as DDT and Endosulfan. However previous studies by Negatu et al. [8]. in Ethiopia around the Rift Valley Region, DDT and Endosulfan were reported to be used by, 25% and 94% of the small scale irrigation farmers within the one year before the interview and by 87% and 98% of the small-scale irrigated farmers since their connection in pesticide application work, respectively. Similarly, Mengstie et al. [2]. reported the use of banned pesticides (DDT) by the vegetable farmer in Ethiopia around Meki and Ziway. Recent decrease and no use of these banned and restricted pesticides in the present study could be attributed to the effectiveness of the National Implementation Plan (NIP) for the Stockholm Convention in Ethiopia. According to Gubena, [27]. the main aim of the NIP is to get ready comprehensive and practical activities for the effective controlling of POPs chemicals in the Ethiopian situation and to decrease, and eventually avoid, the use and release of POPs after fulfilling the requirements of the Stockholm Convention and national sustainable development objectives and strategies such as the Environmental Policy and the Plan for Accelerated and Sustainable Development [28].
About 45% of the farmers sprayed chemical pesticides up to 12 to15 times. Roughly 12% of the farmers stated applying pesticides more than 15 times per season. Consequently, the rate of pesticide use by small scale vegetable farmers was very high. This intensive use of pesticides may cause everyday contact with pesticides, which can lead to substantial human health problems and possible environmental contamination. Sun et al. [29] revealed that insufficient governmental agricultural extension services are the most central factor in the overdoing and misuse of chemical pesticides. Some countries in Africa reporting substantial use of pesticides, for instance, in Ghana vegetable farmers sprayed more than 12 times per crop cultivation. Moreover in Tanzania, farmers sprayed more than 21 times per crop season[25].
In this study, we assessed the practice of storage and disposal of pesticides by farmers and their association with their level of knowledge. The level of education affects knowledge. This was apparent from the present study in addition to the study in South India by Mohanty et al. [15] where a significant association was reported between a good level of knowledge about pesticide disposal and education level. Our study presented that farmers with good knowledge had safe pesticide practices than farmers with poor knowledge. Our study showed some upsetting activities about the storage of pesticides, with 94.5% of the farmers storing pesticides in residential rooms under the bed, on the roof, in the kitchen, in the toilet, and an animal house with other items. While only 5.7% did not store pesticides, buy the required amount, and use it immediately (Table 5). This proves the farmers’ shortage of knowledge of pesticides and a suitable methodology for storing pesticides. The study conducted in the West Bank by Sa’ed et al. [30] showed that few farmers (7.3%) buy and use it directly(did not store). Our study revealed that farmers with good knowledge take protective care compared to farmers with poor knowledge. Our results were consistent with the study conducted in Puducherry, South India by Mohanty et al. [15].
Appropriate pesticide waste disposal is also an imperative part of accountable pesticide use. However unplanned release of uncontrolled discharge of pesticide into the environment can impaired society and pollute the ecosystem [31]. A great number of farmers throw away an empty container on the farm (Table 5). Empty pesticide containers may regularly hold an undesirable amount of pesticide solution or powder if not rinsed well. This improper disposal could damage the community and the ecosystem. Even if only 8.1% of farmers reuse empty containers for domestic purposes, the practice is widespread in many low-income countries. Studies by Benjamin et al. [7] in Rwanda, Nadja et al. [32] in Tanzania, and Jallow et al., [33) in Kuwait reported that farmers used empty pesticide containers for domestic use, such as for holding drinking water and storing food ingredients.
In our study, nearly half of the farmers did not dispose of leftover pesticide safe way i.e. disposed of the leftover pesticide by discarding it into the field and apply on other crops. Very few farmers reported mixing only needed pesticides. Sa’ed et al. [30] reported that 60.9% of framers apply the leftover pesticide solution on the same day they bought it without store it. However, 29.4% of farmers reserved the leftover pesticide in an unlabeled plastic container which usually many poor farmers use the container as a drinking utensil. The culture of discarding the excess solution of pesticide into the farmland in our study can be correlated with the knowledge, where the majority of the farmers were unfamiliar with the excess of pesticides affecting soil and gradually carry away into the surrounding water body (e.g. Lake Ziway). In the present study, the majority of the small scale farmers (97%) did not rinse or clean empty containers before disposal. This risky activity, disposing of leftover pesticides, and empty pesticide containers seen in our study is a worry because it has an impact on the environment by polluting soil, surface, and groundwater besides cause hazard to non-target creatures. These poor activities were reflected to be one of the major difficulties associated with pesticide use and its management and control in low-income countries [34].
In the present study, very few small scale farmers took bath after pesticide mix and spray. Mekonnen and Agonafir [35] and Negatu et al. [8] conveyed comparable results in which many of the farmers did not take a shower habitually after the application of pesticides. Only 35% of the small-scale farmers considered the wind direction during spraying. However, 64.8% of the farmers were not considering the direction of the wind while spraying. This is in agreement with the study done in Nepal [36]). According to Khanal and Singh [37] not considering the wind direction cause uncertainties such as bad odor, unable to spray-on targeted crop, trouble in spraying as well as difficulty in inhalation by the person spraying the pesticides. The inadequate knowledge of the pesticide use and methods of the application procedure for this study is in agreement with other studies done in low-income countries [17, 36, 38, 39].
When asked small-scale farmers, whether they used biological pesticides or others such as IPM, none of the farmers reported the use of IPM. Integrated Pest Management (IPM) has been shown to reduce the use and improper practices during utilizing pesticides. IPM focuses on the significance of the production of healthy crops and inspires natural pest control systems [25, 40]. Even though most small-scale vegetable farmers had some knowledge of the health effect related to pesticide use, they did not protect themselves effectively from acute pesticide toxicity. In this study, almost all farmers wore poor personal protective equipment leading to unsafe protection when mixing and spraying pesticides. From field observations, it was noted that none of the farmers used any protective equipment. Likewise, a study by Negatu et al. [8] in the rift valley region in Ethiopia reported that less than 5% of farmers used the mask, or gloves during pesticide application. Three fourth of small-scale vegetable farmers in this study reported that they did not wear the boot and 94% did not wear eye goggles while 94.2% of farmers wearing normal clothes while they are spraying and mixing pesticide. While a study by Mekonnen and Agonafir [35] has stated that 18% of small-scale farmers had flaccid goggles and the other 29% dressed in worn-out gloves. In our study, nearly 97.5% of farmers with poor pesticide knowledge did not use face masks and gloves while spraying. This is consistent with the results of the study conducted by Williamson et al. [41]. Farmers did not use PPE because of the inadequate knowledge about the safety measures, inaccessibility of protective devices at the local market, PPE being uncomfortable in the local hot and humid climate, and their high cost at the private shops. Warm climate was one of the causes of low use of PPE as mentioned by studies done in the USA [42].
Small-scale farmers tended to use a high amount of pesticides to protect their vegetables from pest alteration for more economic benefits [5]. Our result indicates that the rate of applications of pesticides is higher. In this study, any farmer did not report the correct knowledge regarding pesticide application interval. Similarly, an extensive amount of pesticide application was reported in other countries: in Benin, many farmers spray pesticides every 3–5 days, [41], in Brazil, the pesticide spraying rate ranged from 3–15 days [16]. Our results have shown that insecticides and fungicides dominated chemical pest management in all vegetable farms, reflecting the serious problems of insect and fungi attacks in the survey zone. However, very limited farmers reported the use of herbicides because most of the time vegetable farmers in the study area use inexpensive human labor to remove the weeds manually. While somewhere else in America and Europe, herbicides, as far as possible, are the most commonly used pesticides followed by insecticides, fungicides, and others. This is probably because it is inexpensive to use this product than renting additional labor during weeding [16].
The most common health problems related to exposure to agrochemicals, reported cases by the small-scale farmers include skin problems, headache, teary and eye irritation, seizure, sore throat, and respiratory disorder, fatigue, nausea, and stomach ache. Burning sensation in the eyes is the most regularly reported symptom. According to USEPA [43], all of the reported cases can be symptoms of pesticide exposure. Most of these signs are deliberated as indicators of acetylcholinesterase inhibition [44]. Many of the reported pesticides in the present study have acute toxicity to humans. For example, Cypermethrin is moderately toxic through skin contact or ingestion. It may also irritate the skin and eyes. Symptoms of dermal exposure comprise unresponsiveness, stinging, itching, burning sensation, unskillfulness, and possible death. According to Khan et al., [45], exposure to Lambda Cyhalothrin caused up to 20% and 57.1% inhibition in the activity of brain cholinesterase enzyme. Lake Ziway is used as a key water supply for irrigation and domestic purposes such as drinking, food preparation, and cleaning clothes in addition to its ecosystem service. The misuse of pesticide cause possible health risks to the communities around the Lake Ziway as well as the biodiversity of the lake, which may be exposed to water polluted by pesticide carried by flood. Moreover, human exposure to pesticides is probably occurring through work-related exposure [46], (but can also occur through exposure to polluted water sources [47].
Pesticides have been found to contaminate Lake Ziway [12, 48, 49]. These pesticide residues are highly lethal to fish and amphibians [50]. The present study revealed the insufficient knowledge of small-scale farmers about the fate of pesticide accumulation in surface water and groundwater. Anju et al. [51] examined pesticides that had damaged aquatic organisms including fish. In our study above 86% of the farmers interviewed sprayed pesticides close to Lake Ziways. Similarly, they continuously used water from the lake to blend pesticides in the farm, cleaning, and rinsing the spraying container after spraying tasks. This misuse of pesticides may intensify the susceptibility of the farmers to pesticide poisoning as well as affecting the quality of the water. Likewise, 46% of the respondents get information or advice from other farmers and their long term personal experience instead of paying attention to the concentration rate on pesticide labels, increasing misuse of these pesticides in the study area is apparent to cause a deterioration of aquatic organisms.
The study further revealed that useful insects, birds, and fish get declining in the study area. The farmers reported instantaneous changes in the number of insects and animals in the area over the last two years succeeding pesticide application, 89, 79 and 80 percent of the farmers conveyed that they had noticed a decrease in the numbers of beneficial insects, frogs, and birds and mammals, respectively (Fig. 2). These declines may be due to fortuitous exposure by the organisms with pesticides misused by the farmers [52, 53]. Similarly, the farmers reported recently no honeybees have been seen on their farm, which used to be plentiful in the area. The possible explanation could be the use of pesticides such as organochlorine, carbamate, organophosphorus, and parathyroid pesticide exposure [54].