Temporary Reduction in VOCs Associated with Health Risk During and After COVID-19 in Maharashtra, India

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-1409312/v1

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Temporary Reduction in VOCs Associated with Health Risk During and After COVID-19 in Maharashtra, India

https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-1409312/v1

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An unprecedented novel coronavirus has affected almost all countries and impacted the economy, environment, and social life. The short-term impact on the environment and human health needs attention to correlate the Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and health assessment for pre-, during, and post lockdowns. Therefore, the current study demonstrates VOC changes and their effect on air quality during the lockdown. The mean TVOCs concentrations for all monitoring stations 15.45, 2.82, and 19.25 µg/m^3, respectively, for pre-, during, and post-lockdown periods. The highest value of TVOCs was observed at Thane, considered an industrial region (petroleum refinery and chemical industries), and the lowest at Bandra, which was considered a residential region, respectively. The VOCs levels drastically decreased by 52%, 89%, 80%, and 97% for Benzene, Toluene, Eth-benzene, and M-xylene, respectively, during the lockdown period compared to the corresponding period in 2019. In the present study, the T/B ratio was found lower in the lockdown period as compared to the pre-lockdown period. This can be attributed to the complete closure of non-traffic sources such as industries and factories during the lockdown. The Lifetime Cancer Risk (LCR) values for all monitoring stations for benzene for pre-, during and post lockdown periods were higher than the prescribed value (1 x 10^− 6), except during the lockdown period.

TVOCs

lockdown

T/B ratio

lifetime cancer risk

SARS-CoV-2, a novel coronavirus well known as COVID-19, was first reported in Wuhan, China in late December 2019 (Sohrabi et al., 2020; Cui et al., 2020; WHO, 2020). These global spread viruses have affected over 252 million people worldwide and impacted the international economic, industrial production, and social life of all the people. (Bossak et .al, 2021). In order to flatting the curve for COVID-19, many state governments and ultimately central government have taken measures to control the pandemic by generating social distancing among the people. (Kerimray et al., 2020; Yunus et al. 2020; Pradhan et al., 2020). These measures have been declared by various names, such as restricted movement in different places, country-wide lockdowns, partial lockdowns, and quarantine curfews (Jain, S., & Sharma, 2020; Hasan et al.,2021). These measures witnessed the reduction of air pollutants and increased air quality across the world due to complete closures of industries, transport, construction works (Anjum, 2020; Bao and Zhang, 2020; Chen et al., 2020; Dutheil et al., 2020; Navinya et al., 2020). At the same time, in many studies, there was reported an emission reduction in the primary pollutants such as particulate matter (PM), carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen dioxide (NO₂), Sulfur dioxide (SO₂), and Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) whereas the precursors of secondary pollutants ozone (O₃)was amplified during the lockdown period (Siciliano et al., 2020; Tobías et al., 2020; Wang et al., 2020; Pei et al., 2020; Venteret al., 2020; Shehzad et al.,2021; Kandari and Kumar, 2021; Pal et al.,2021; Lal et al., 2021; Singh et al., 2021 a). VOCs are important precursors of surface ozone and PM_2.5 (Atkinson et al., 2006), but variations of VOCs concentration caused by lockdown are still unclear till now (Wang et al, 2021). The VOCs concentration will directly relate in the determination of the O3 accumulation level. (Zhang and Stevenson ,2022)

In the past decades, ambient VOCs pollution has become a serious environmental problem in urban areas, especially in developing countries such as China, India, Iran, Malaysia, Philippines, Vietnam, and Thailand (Cui et al., 2018, Sahu et al., 2016, Hazrati et al.,2016, Hosaini et al., 2016, Do et al., 2015, Carlsenet al., 2018, Kim-Oanh et al., 2015). Due to various harmful effects on human health and the environment, ambient VOC pollution has attracted wide attention from the public, policymakers, industrial- managers, and the scientific research community (Wang et al., 2016; Churkina et al., 2017; Tran et al., 2018).

In tropospheric chemistry and photochemical air pollution, Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and nitrogen oxides play a major and key central role (Dantas et al.,2020). By using various physical processes i.e., wet and dry depositions VOCs are removed very easily and are transformed by using many chemical processes of photolysis, reaction with O₃ and reaction with nitrate (NO₃) radicals (Atkinson, 2000).

Many precursors to PM_2.5 and ozone formation include VOCs, which were emitted by various sources, including vehicular emissions, hazardous wastes, and solvent use possessing their own toxicity (Yan et .al, 2021). Many substances are included in the category of Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs), benzene (C₆H₆), toluene (C₇H₈), ethylbenzene (C₈H₁₀), and (o-, m-, p-) xylenes (C₈H₁₀) and are compounds known as the BTEX groups combinedly. BTEX pollutants sources include Plastics, paints, resins, rubber, adhesives, lubricants, detergents (Allahabady et al., 2020). Up to, 60% of non-methane VOCs (NMVOCs) which were released in the atmosphere are contributed by only BTEX species (Pakkatil et al., 2021). Another study shows that aerosol of heated tobacco products (HTP), aerosols of e-cigarettes also lead to the source of VOCs (Lu et al., 2022). According to Zhao et al. (2017) transportation and industry were considered as the two major contributors to ambient VOCs, and transportation and fuel combustion were also significant contributors in VOC pollution (39–51%) of the source of VOCs emissions (Wang et al. 2020). Another study indicated that industrial (38.5%) and traffic (32%) were the two dominant sources of VOCs in the urban areas, while residential and biogenic sources contributed 13.8% and 1.8%, respectively (Sun et al., 2011).

Many studies have been shown that long term airborne VOCs exposure leads to short- and long-term effects like allergy, nausea, headache, visual disorders, memory impairment, damage to kidney and liver, asthma, nose, and sore throat discomfort, and even cancer also (Yoon et .al, 2010; kharel et .al, 2021, Ulker et al.,2021). Several studies reported that the BTEX class is considered as highly carcinogenic, mutagenic, and genotoxic agents. (Alghamdi et al.,2014, Cerón-Bretónet al.,2015). It is mostly seen that VOCs have an important role in global ecological integrity and human health (Monteno - Montoya et al., 2018; Sakunkoo et .al, 2021). These compounds play a crucial role in forming secondary pollutants on account of their active participation in photochemical reactions (Alghamdi et al., 2014; Cerón Bretón et al., 2015; Miri et al., 2016). In the formation of particulates and ozone, which further forms smog, VOCs play an important and major role (Wu et al., 2011).

In the period of COVID − 19 lockdown, many studies reported the impact of different pollutants in the ambient air quality, but little research was carried out over VOCs. A study found that the level of average VOCs was reported 26.9 ppb during the COVID-19 lockdown (Wang et. al, 2021). Due to complicated sources of VOCs, including vehicle exhaust, vegetation emission, biomass burning, and use of many volatile chemical products like (solvents, pesticides, coatings, personal care products, cleaning agents) determined VOC's emission and its photochemical processing very complicated for furthermore studies (Gao et al., 2021).

The Maharashtra Pollution Control Board released a report (MPCB), indicating that Mehul and Ambapada villages witnessed major health risks with VOCs, by providing evidence to support those exposures to extremely high levels of VOC Toluene, ranging 15.3–41 µg/m³ during the year 2014. None of the previous studies have focused on a detailed analysis of VOCs for pre-, during, and post lockdown in India. This study allowed developing a critical understanding of VOCs for the year 2019 to 2021, including pre-, during, and post lockdown. Moreover, permitting the phase-wise relaxation in lockdown explored potential factors that influence divergent variations in different monitoring stations in Maharashtra.

Hence, the present study aims to characterize BTEX compounds and TVOCs in different lockdown periods for pre-, during, and post-lockdown periods. Furthermore, we compared the concentration of VOCs for pre-, during, and post lockdown periods. In addition to exploring the potential factors through T/B ratio that could influence divergent variations in different monitoring stations. The present study also calculated the health risk of cancer for pre-, during, and post lockdown periods.

2.1 Study Area

This study was carried out in selected monitoring stations in western India, which is considered subtropical monsoon climate. The five biggest cities of Maharashtra were selected for VOCs pollutants such as Bandra, Aurangabad, Chandrapur, Thane, and Nashik. These cities’ coordinates are located at latitude 19.05 ⁰ N, 19.87 ^o N, 19.96 ^o N, 19.21 ^o N, 19.99 ^o N and longitude 72.82 ^o E, 75.34 ^o E, 79.29 ^o E, 72.97 ^o E, 73.78 ^o E, respectively. Monsoon climate (including Due, frost, and hail) in these cities starts in the first week of September with rainy (June-September), summer (March-May), and winter season (November-February). Hill stations are also not that cool. This part of Maharashtra receives a maximum of 22^o C − 39^o C during summers and a minimum of 12^o C – 34^oC during winters. Rainfall in Maharashtra varies from district to district like Thane receives a heavy rain of about 200 cm annually, Pune gets less than 50 cm annually; other than this, central Maharashtra, including Bandra, Aurangabad, and Chandrapur, receive lesser rainfall (Fig. 1).

2.2 Data And Source

Data of different VOCs were obtained from the central pollution control board (CPCB) on an hourly and daily basis. The data for BTEX (benzene, toluene, ethylene, and xylene) were considered in this paper. Data was procured in three phases from March 24, 2019, to May 31, 2019, March 24, 2020, to May 31, 2020, and March 24, 2021, to May 31, 2021, to examine relative and temporal changes in BETX concentration in atmosphere quality (https://app.cpcbccr.com/ccr/#/caaqm-dashboard-all/caaqm-landing). CPCB provides data quality assurance and quality control (QA/QC) programs through rigorous sampling, analysis, and calibration (singh et al., 2021b).

2.3 Measures

There were three phases of pandemic pre-lockdown, lockdown, and post-lockdown. The time between March 24, 2019 – May 31, 2019, was referred as the ‘pre-lockdown period’, the time between March 25, 2020, and May 31, 2020, was referred the ‘during lockdown period, whereas the time between March 25, 2021, and May 31, 2021, was referred the ‘post lockdown period.

2.4 Human Health Assessment

HHRA (human health risk assessment) is a method that is used to identify the impact of different pollutants on a population’s health due to long- and short-term exposure in it (Morkivono et al, 2021). For example, it assessed the possible health risks from BTEX exposure (benzene, toluene, ethylene, and xylene) using the US Environmental Protection Agency’s (EPA) human health risk assessment framework. The HHRA is a tool used by regulatory agencies to assist in the formulation of policies that protect public health against the harmful effects of air pollution (OECD, 2008). It can further be subdivided into four components- identification of hazard by existing literature studies; dose-response assessment by estimating the pollutant take-up by the human body as a function of concentration and duration of exposure; exposure assessment which identifies the magnitude and duration of exposure to the hazard.

2.4.1 Hazard Identification

Hazard identification is a procedure to identify the pollutant in an ambient environment that is likely to induce harmful effects on human health (Saliba et al., 2016). The identification of different VOCS, including BTEX, which are of high risk to human health, was performed through a literature review.

2.4.2 Dose-response Assessment

The Dose-response assessment estimates are based on the amount of the pollutant taken into the body and exposure length (Gratt, 1996; WHO, 1999). Therefore, the Dose-response assessment is not estimated in the current study. Rather, the present study compares the measured ambient concentration of pollutants in the study area with the South African National Ambient Air Quality Standard (NAAQS), which serves as the benchmark (NAAQS, 1994).

2.4.3 Exposure Assessment

Exposure assessment (EA) was calculated to examine the duration and magnitude of the population based on different parameters. In the present study, the inhalation route is the major route of exposure to the identified pollutants. We estimated the daily and annual readings for normal and acute exposure periods for different age groups, namely male (70 years), female (60 years), and children (36 years). The values of the parameters used in the health risk assessment model are presented in table 1.

$EC=\frac{\text{C}\text{A}\text{*}\text{E}\text{T}\text{*}\text{E}\text{F}\text{*}\text{E}\text{D}}{\text{A}\text{T}}$ ……………….. 1

$CDI=\frac{\text{C}\text{A}\text{*}\text{I}\text{R}\text{*}\text{E}\text{F}\text{*}\text{E}\text{D}}{\text{B}\text{W}\text{*}\text{A}\text{T}}$ ……………….. 2

$HQ=\frac{\text{E}\text{C}}{\text{R}\text{f}\text{C}}$ …………………………. 3

$ILCR=CDI*SF$ ………………... 4

Here, EC (mg m − 3) = exposure concentration;

CA (µg/m³) = VOC (the average concentration of benzene, toluene, ethylene, and xylene);

ET (h/d) = exposure time;

EF (d/y) represents exposure frequency;

ED (y) = exposed length of working,

AT (h) = average exposure time, during the carcinogenic assessment, the average lifetime (per capita life expectancy × 365 d/y × 24 h/d) was adopted, and during the non-carcinogenic assessment, the average period of exposure cycle (ED × 365 d/y × 24 h/d) was adopted;

HQ (µg/m³) = hazard quotient;

RfC = reference concentration of inhalation toxicity;

SF (kg d mg − 1) = carcinogenic slope factor

2.4.4 Risk Characterization

Risk assessment from different VOC can be calculated by using Eq. 1

$$EC=\frac{\text{C}\text{A}\text{*}\text{E}\text{T}\text{*}\text{E}\text{F}\text{*}\text{E}\text{D}}{\text{A}\text{T}}$$

For non-carcinogenic health risk assessment, Eq. 3 is used

$$HQ=\frac{\text{E}\text{C}}{\text{R}\text{f}\text{C}}$$

LCR = E_L x SF

For VOCs having a non-carcinogenic effect on the human health value of HQ should be less than or equal to 1. The value of HQ is directly proportional to the toxicity of VOCs i.e, the higher the value HQ > 1 it can create a potential risk to human health. For carcinogens, VOCs risk factor HQ between 10^− 4 – 10^− 3 can be considered the normal range for human health protection. In reality, populations may be exposed to the same constituents from other sources which are unknown or not considered in this study. Therefore, it is obvious to assume that the estimated carcinogenic risk is well below the 10^− 6 limited level to allow for a reasonable margin of protectiveness for populations at potential risk. In spite of this, if a calculated cancer risk exceeds the 10^− 6 limit, there is a serious need for taking the right steps and applying the management in this direction for overall population health

Total Vocs Levels In The Pre-, During, And Post Lockdown Periods

The present study focused on determining the significant changes in air pollutants, especially the total Volatile organic compounds (TVOCs) concentrations, during the COVID-19 pandemic in India, especially it’s western part. The VOCs concentrations significantly declined during the lockdown period in 2020 as compared to the corresponding period in 2019 at all of the monitoring stations in Maharashtra. The main factors behind the significant decline in VOC concentrations during the lockdown were near-total restrictions on transport, industrial activities, and the opening of marketplaces. As a result, the levels of total VOC concentrations were found to be 15.45, 2.48, 19.25 µg/m³ for all monitoring stations for pre-, during, and post lockdown periods. The TVOCs concentrations for all monitoring stations ranged between 0.47 µg/m³ (Bandra) and 51.69 µg/m³ (Thane), 0.44 µg/m³ (Chandrapur) and 4.39 µg/m³ (Nashik), and 2.33 µg/m³ (Bandra) and 77.04 µg/m³ (Thane) respectively for pre-, during, and post-lockdown periods (Fig. 2).

The maximum and minimum levels of TVOCs for all three years were observed in Thane and the Bandra monitoring stations, respectively. The trend of TVOCs for among all the monitoring stations was observed to be in order Thane > Nashik > Chandrapur > Bandra during the lockdown period, whereas Thane > Aurangabad > Chandrapur > Bandra for the pre-lockdown and Thane > Aurangabad > Nashik > Chandrapur > Bandra for the post lockdown periods. The TVOCs concentration declined by -84% compared to the levels observed in the previous year.

After the lifting of lockdown, TVOCs gradually increased along with the re-opening of various industries and transport services. This could also be related to the use of private transportation (including private cars and taxis) as people continued practicing social distance and resuming their jobs (Huang et al., 2020). The highest value of TVOCs was observed at Thane, considered an industrial region, and the lowest at Bandra, which was considered a residential region, respectively. The highest TVOCs at Thane may be attributed to petroleum refinery and chemical industries. On the other hand, the reduction percentages for TVOCs have not observed a similar trend during the lockdown periods. This can be generally explained by the changes in the contribution of both solvent use and vehicles exhaust (Qi et al., 2021). A study conducted at different zones in Delhi, the average values of TVOC and ∑BEXT were reported highest (518.9 µg/m³) in heavy traffic density areas during the rush and non-rush hours (Singh et al., 2016) which was much higher than the present study.

Identification Of Vocs Characteristic Pollutants For Pre-lockdown Period

The BTEX concentration for all monitoring stations was presented in Fig. 3 for pre-, during and post lockdown periods. The average levels of VOC for pre-lockdown periods were found to be 2.32, 15.47, 3.15, and 6.32 µg/m³ for Benzene, Toluene, Eth-Benzene, and MP-Xylene, respectively. For pre-lockdown periods, the average VOCs varied from 0.23 to 8.30 µg/m3 for benzene and 1.35 to 40.09 µg/m³ for Toluene at Chandrapur and Thane monitoring stations, respectively. Benzene, toluene, and MP-Xylene’s average VOCs were 8.30, 40.09, and 13.78 at Thane. The maximum VOCs for Benzene, Toluene, Eth-Benzene, and MP-Xylene were 30.15, 112.20, 108.0, and 9.63 µg/m³ for Thane during the year 2019, whereas the minimum that was observed were 0.23, 1.35, and 1.32 at Chandrapur for the year 2019.

The average trend was found to be in order Thane > Bandra > Aurangabad > Chandrapur for Benzene and Thane > Aurangabad > Chandrapur for Toluene, whereas a similar trend was also observed for MP-Xylene during the year 2019. A high level of VOCs was reported at Thane due to the area-defined buffer zone between hazardous industries and residential quarters. Ravindra et al. (2019) claimed that transport was the most significant contributor of VOCs in ambient air; other sources such as industries and petrol pumps also contributed significantly. Furthermore, several studies reported that the major emission sources that were contributing to VOCs were solvent related emissions, renovations, household products, paints, glues, polishes, waxes, and pesticides (Batterman et al. 2007; Schlink et al. 2010; Dunagan et al. 2011; Jia and Batterman 2010; Chin and Batterman 2012; Chin et al., 2014).

Identification Of Vocs Characteristic Pollutants During Lockdown Periods

The average VOCs for all monitoring stations were calculated to be 1.12, 1.63, 0.62, and 0.19 µg/m³ for Benzene, Toluene, Eth-Benzene, and MP-Xylene, respectively during the lockdown period. The average Benzene concentration varied from 0.06 µg/m³ (Chandrapur) to 2.58 µg/m³ (Bandra), whereas for toluene it varied from 0.19 µg/m³ (Chandrapur) to 3.06 µg/m³ (Nashik) during the lockdown period. The VOCs at all stations were recorded below the prescribed limit by CPCB (5 µg/m³) during the lockdown period. The average values reported during the lockdown were minimum due to complete transport and industrial activities restrictions, which are significant sources of primary VOC emissions.

The average trend of benzene was found to be in order Chandrapur > Nashik > Bandra, whereas a similar trend was also observed for toluene during the lockdown period. The maximum values that were calculated were 9.37 µg/m³ (Bandra), 0.16 µg/m³ (Chandrapur), and 1.69 µg/m³ (Nashik) for benzene, 1.05 µg/m³ (Chandrapur), and 8.69 µg/m³ (Nashik) for toluene during the lockdown period. The levels of VOC were reported higher at Chandrapur as compared to other stations due to the presence and continued operation of the Super Thermal Power Station which contributed a significant portion of VOCs during the lockdown period. Power plants were functional during the lockdown period but at a reduced scale due to the decline in electricity demand in industrial and commercial units (Sathe et al., 2020). The values of VOC for all monitoring stations were observed to be lower during the lockdown period than the corresponding period in 2019. The major factors behind the decline in emissions during lockdown have been found to be complete restrictions on activities such as transportation (including road, rail, and air), construction, and industries, except essential services such as medical facilities and electricity. In contrast, a slight increase in VOC was noticed during the second and third phase of the lockdown (April 15 – May 3, 2020) due to conditional relaxation to certain businesses, including agricultural businesses, cargo transportation, trucks, trains, and planes, to operate which were significant sources for VOCs.

Identification Of Vocs Characteristic Pollutants For Post-lockdown Periods

The average VOCs for all monitoring stations were 3.38 µg/m³, 28.54 µg/m³, 1.68 µg/m³ for benzene, toluene, and MP-Xylene, respectively during the post- lockdown period. The average VOCs for all stations varied from 2.33 (Bandra) to 5.33 (Thane) for benzene, 3.28 (Nashik) to 74.14 (Thane) in the post-lockdown period. The average levels for VOCs were found to be the highest at Thane, followed by Aurangabad, Chandrapur, and Nashik. The benzene concentration for Thane was recorded quite high, even above the standard limits, while in Bandra, Chandrapur, and Nashik, the levels were also found to be over the standard limits. The trend for benzene was observed in the order Thane > Chandrapur > Bandra > Nashik, whereas for toluene, the order was Thane > Aurangabad > Nashik (Sfig 1).

The maximum VOCs varied from 2.85 (Bandra) to 18.04 (Thane) for benzene and 8.85 (Aurangabad) to 219.20 (Thane) for toluene. The maximum values of VOCs have observed at Thane, possibly due to this area experiencing the movement of heavy-duty vehicles (Srivastava et al., 2005). Emissions from the refinery and transportation of raw material and products through heavy vehicles in Thane contributed to TVOCs there. Traffic emissions were one of the significant sources at Thane, which is situated within 2 km from the major highways.

Comparative Analysis For Pre-, During, And Post-lockdown Period

The average levels of VOCs for benzene varied from 0.23 to 8.30, .06 to 2.58, and 2.33 to 5.38 for all stations for pre-, during and post lockdown periods, respectively. The VOCs levels drastically decreased by 52%, 89%, 80%, and 97% for Benzene, Toluene, Eth-benzene, and M-xylene, respectively during the lockdown period compared to the corresponding period in 2019 (Sfig 2). A similar study conducted in metro cities in India indicated a decrease of about 80 ± 13%, 75 ± 20%, 88 ± 7%, and 80 ± 16% for benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylene, respectively, during the first phase of lockdown when compared to the values prior to this time (Pakkattil et al., 2021).

The maximum changes were observed − 76%, -86%, and − 87% for Benzene, Toluene, and M-Xylene respectively at Chandrapur during the lockdown period. On the other hand, the average VOCs for the post lockdown period were recorded much higher at 3.02, 17.5, and 9.05 times than those during the lockdown period. These higher values recorded for post lockdown periods were attributable to the relaxation in lockdown by the government of Maharashtra to activities such as transport (public and private), industrial and construction work, and commercial shops (Patil et al., 2021). On the other hand, a slight increase in VOC emissions can be expected, especially in COVID-19, like the situation when the use of sodium hypochlorite solution as spraying agent in the community disinfection practices (Chatterjee, 2020), and frequent mass use of sanitizers etc. was followed rigorously within the cities to control the spread of the disease (Sathe et al., 2020).

The average changes in TVOCs for all stations declined by 84% during the lockdown period as compared to the corresponding period in the previous year. The TVOCs were observed (2.48 µg/m³) below the prescribed limit during the lockdown period, whereas for pre (15.45 µg/m³) and post (19.25 µg/m³), they were observed higher than the CPCB prescribed limit.

Source Identification Of Vocs

The ratio of Toluene and Benzene ratio (T/B) has been widely used to evaluate the influence of traffic and non-traffic sources for vehicle exhaust contribution to aromatics (Nelson and Quigley, 1984; (Shi et al. 2015). Emissions from vehicles are the primary source for both Benzene and Toluene, but benzene is also a well-known marker for vehicular exhaust (Miller et al., 2012). A value of less than 2 for T/B indicated that vehicular emissions significantly influenced aromatic emissions (Wang et al., 2016). Several previous studies have reported that ratios lower than 2 indicated a high traffic source contribution (Tiwari et al. 2010; Yurdakul et al. 2013; Jaars et al. 2014; Miller et al. 2012; Miller et al. 2011), whereas higher ratios indicated non-traffic sources and much higher ratio could also show the influence of other industrial activities (Ho et al. 2004).

In the present study, the T/B ratio was calculated to be 21.19, 5.22, and 4.83 for Aurangabad, Chandrapur, and Thane, respectively, which indicated that non-traffic sources were major contributors during 2019. A higher T/B ratio was also attributed to other sources such as industrial emissions and petrol pumps during 2019 (Gaur, Singh, and Shukla, 2016). The highest toluene to benzene ratio was observed at Aurangabad station, which may indicate higher average temperatures and higher incident solar radiations and other sources along with the traffic emissions to have contributed to higher levels of VOCs.

The T/B ratio during the lockdown period varied between 3.19 and 4.33 in Chandrapur and Nashik stations, respectively, indicating traffic and transportation (under the essential activities) as sources of emissions. In the present study, the T/B ratio was found lower in the lockdown period as compared to the pre-lockdown period. This can be attributed to the complete closure of non-traffic sources such as industries and factories during the lockdown. For the post lockdown period, the T/B ratio was found to be in the range between 1.22 (Nashik) and 13.8 (Thane). A higher T/B ratio was recorded for the post lockdown period as compared to the lockdown period. A higher T/B ratio also indicated the influence of resumption of industrial activities and factories. Other studies claimed that if the T/B ratios were nearly equal to 2 or more, it indicates the predominance of traffic emission sources (Kumar et al., 2017; Carlsen et al., 2018). Several literatures have been reported which confirmed the traffic emission sources such in southern Taiwan (4.6) (Hsieh et al., 2006), Izmir, Turkey (1.81) (Hartmann et al., 1997) Cairo, Egypt (2.4) (Khoder, 2007), Bari, Italy (2.0) (Caselli et al., 2010), Delhi, India (2.54) (Hoque et al., 2008), and Sakaka city, Saudi Arabia Kingdom (1.95–6.07) (El-Hashemy et al., 2018).

Health Risk Assessment

This study calculated the health risk assessment for daily exposure, effective yearly exposure, effective lifetime exposure, hazard quotient, and lifetime cancer risk for the pre-, during, and post lockdown periods. Several published reports have classified the toxicological profile of 20 VOCs by the ATSDR, and the National Toxicology Program (NTP) of the U.S., Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS), U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Texas Commission on Environmental Quality (TCEQ), National Research Council (NRC) of the National Academies, and the IARC (CDC, 2016; ASTDR, 2012; ASTDR, 2019; Phillips & Haney, 2017; IARC, 1994; EPA, 2020; NRC, 2014) Exposure to the VOCs in the present study indicate acute and chronic health hazards. Many studies claimed that the human health effects of VOCs can be categorized as non-cancer and cancer risks (He et al., 2015; Li et al., 2019). It has been reported that non-cancer risk is mainly associated with chronic damage to the liver and kidney (Rumchev et al., 2007; Singh et al., 2021; Singh et al., 2021c), and cancer risk is primarily reflected in the lung, blood, and brain cancer due to specific exposure (WHO 2000).

Various organizations such as the WHO and the USEPA have established guideline values for BTEX compounds and recommended the limit of LCR (USEPA, 2009). LCR values are considered an indicator of risk; an LCR with the value of 10 − 6 indicates that potential cancer risk in individual cases will be one person per million people (Habeebullah, 2015). Sexton et al. (2007) proposed different levels to determine the risk from air pollutants in the ambient environment. These levels are classified as follows: compounds with a CR value greater than 10^− 4 can be defined as a “definite risk”, a value of 10^− 5-10^− 4 as a “probable risk”, and a value of 10^− 5-10^− 6 as a “possible risk”.

At all monitoring stations, the present study calculated LCR values for pre-, during, and post lockdown periods for benzene, toluene, and MP-xylene. LCR values of Benzene for pre-, during and post lockdown periods varied from 2.03 x 10^− 6 to 3.56 x 10^− 5, 2.62 x 10^− 7 to 1.11 x 10^− 5, and 9.99 x 10^− 6 to 2.3 x 10^− 5 for males whereas from 2.37 x 10^− 6 to 4.15 x 10^− 5, 3.06 x 10^− 7 to 1.29 x 10^− 5, and 1.17 x 10^− 5 to 2.69 x 10^− 5 for females and from 3.95 x 10^− 6 to 6.92 x 10^− 5, 5.1 x 10^− 7 to 2.15 x 10^− 5, and 1.94 x 10^− 5 to 4.48 x 10^− 5 for children, respectively for all monitoring stations (Table). The highest LCR values at all monitoring stations were calculated at Thane for the post lockdown period, and the lowest was at Chandrapur during the lockdown period.

LCR values of Toluene for pre-, and during lockdown periods were varied from 5.81 x 10^− 6 to 1.72 x 10^− 4, and 8.36 x 10^− 7 to 3.18 x 10^− 4 for male whereas from 6.77 x 10^− 6 to 2.01 x 10^− 4, and 9.75 x 10^− 7 to 3.71 x 10^− 4 for females and from 1.13 x 10^− 5 to 3.34 x 10^− 4 and 3.73 x 10^− 5 to 6.85 x 10^− 5 for children, respectively for all monitoring stations. The LCR values for pre-, during, and post lockdown periods were recorded to be the highest for Thane station, whereas the lowest values were recorded for Chandrapur station among males, females, and children. The LCR values for pre lockdown period varied from 5.64 x 10^− 6 to 5.91 x 10^− 5, 6.58 x 10^− 6 to 6.89 x 10^− 5, and 1.1 x 10^− 5 to 1.1 x 10^− 4 for male, female, and children respectively. The LCR values were recorded to be the highest for Thane station and the lowest for Chandrapur station. A value of LCR for the pre-lockdown period was found to be similar 2.15 × 10^− 5 and 2.05 × 10^− 5 for male and female residents respectively in China, which indicated a noticeable higher carcinogenic risk for male and female residents. (Qin et al., 2022). The LCR values for all monitoring stations for benzene for pre-, during, and post lockdown periods were higher than the prescribed value (1 x 10^− 6), except during the lockdown period, a guideline limit value in some circumstances (Dutta et al., 2009; Ramírez et al. 2012). The LCR values for males, females, and children were similar to Delhi (Kumar et al., 2014). Many studies estimated cancer risk in various cities and reported similar results (Guo et al. 2004; Hoddinott and Lee, 2000; Ohura et al. 2006).

The temporary change in Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) were investigated at five different monitoring sites in Maharashtra (Bandra, Chandrapur, Aurangabad, Thane, and Nashik) for pre-, during, and post lockdown period (the year 2019–2021). The VOCs data for five monitoring stations were obtained from the Central Pollution Control Board (CPBC). As a result, the levels of total VOC (TVOC) concentrations were found to be 15.45, 2.48, 19.25 µg/m3 for all monitoring stations for pre-, during, and post lockdown periods. The average changes in TVOC level were declined 84% during the lockdown period as the corresponding year 2019. The highest value of TVOCs was observed at Thane, considered an industrial region, and the lowest at Bandra, which was considered a residential region, respectively. The highest TVOCs at Thane may be attributed to petroleum refinery and chemical industries. During the lockdown period, the average VOC concentrations were recorded below the standard limits prescribed by CPCB (5 µg/m³). The levels of VOC were reported higher at Chandrapur as compared to other stations due to the presence and continued operation of the Super Thermal Power Station, which contributed a significant portion of VOCs during the lockdown period. On the other way, the average VOCs for the post lockdown period for Benzene, Toluene, and M-Xylene respectively were recorded much higher at 3.02, 17.5, and 9.05 times than those during the lockdown period. These higher values recorded for post lockdown periods were attributable to the relaxation in lockdown by the government of Maharashtra to activities such as transport (public and private), industrial and construction work, and commercial shops.

In the present study, the T/B ratio was calculated to be 21.19, 5.22, and 4.83 for Aurangabad, Chandrapur, and Thane, respectively, which indicated that non-traffic sources were major contributors during 2019. The T/B ratio during the lockdown period varied between 3.19 and 4.33 in Chandrapur and Nashik stations, respectively, indicating traffic and transportation (under the essential activities) as sources of emissions. A higher T/B ratio for post lockdown indicated the influence of resumption of industrial activities and factories.

The LCR values for pre-, during and post lockdown periods were the highest for Thane station, whereas the lowest values were recorded for Chandrapur station among males, females, and children. The LCR values for all monitoring stations for benzene for pre-, during, and post lockdown periods exceeded the threshold level (1 x 10^− 6), and significant health threat to people except during the lockdown period.

Further, the study aims to increase the scientific rigor of research in this area. However, some of the limitations of the current manuscript required access to have a more comprehensive study in the coming future; it is necessary to expand the scope of the analysis with the measurements of more monitoring sites along with the meteorological parameters and also lack of individual VOC data for few monitoring stations. This study could persuade a closer look at reduction strategies to limit the health effects of VOC emission from various sources from the viewpoint of human health; the government should introduce more stringent legislation toward reducing source emissions in India.

Acknowledgment

This paper and the research behind it would not have been possible without the exceptional support of the “Haryana Pollution Control Board”, which provided the data of water quality parameters for Yamuna River.

Ethical Approval

Not applicable.

Consent to Participate

All authors have agreed for authorship, read and approved the manuscript

Consent to Publish

All the authors have given consent for publication.

Funding

Funding is not applicable

Compliance with ethical standards Conflict of interest

The authors declare that there have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper

Availability of Data

The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request

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Table 1:
Values of the parameters used in the health risk assessment model (USEPA, 2009)

Parameter	Value	Unit
CF	0.001	mg/mg
IR	.83	m³/h
ET	24	h/day
EF	350	days/year
ED	24	Year
BW	70	Kg
AT	24 X 365	Day
RfD (Benzene)	.03	mg/kg/d
RfD (Toluene)	5	mg/kg/d
RfD (Ethylbenzene)	1	mg/kg/d
RfD (Xylene)	.1	mg/kg/d
SF	.0273	(mg/kg/day)^-¹

SFIG1.png
Sfig: 1: Box plot for BTEX concentration for pre-, during, and post lockdown period
SFIG2.png
Sfig 2: Time series plot of VOC for pre-, during, and post lockdown periods

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Temporary Reduction in VOCs Associated with Health Risk During and After COVID-19 in Maharashtra, India

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Abstract

Figures

Introduction

Materials And Methods

2.1 Study Area

2.2 Data And Source

2.3 Measures

2.4 Human Health Assessment

2.4.1 Hazard Identification

2.4.2 Dose-response Assessment

2.4.3 Exposure Assessment

2.4.4 Risk Characterization

Results And Discussion

Total Vocs Levels In The Pre-, During, And Post Lockdown Periods

Identification Of Vocs Characteristic Pollutants For Pre-lockdown Period

Identification Of Vocs Characteristic Pollutants During Lockdown Periods

Identification Of Vocs Characteristic Pollutants For Post-lockdown Periods

Comparative Analysis For Pre-, During, And Post-lockdown Period

Source Identification Of Vocs

Health Risk Assessment

Conclusion

Declarations

References

Tables

Supplementary Files

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