3.1 The occurrence of MM
Treatment approaches for CMT include observation only, physical therapy, neural and visceral manipulation, medicine injection, and surgery[17, 23, 24]. Early intervention for infants with CMT aims to prevent craniofacial deformity, limitations in neck motion, imbalance in muscle strength, and spinal deformity[1, 2]. For most infants with CMT, earlier professional and standardized treatment improves the outcome. Otherwise, SCM could develop into progressive fibrosis and contracture[4]. As the most commonly used treatment, physiotherapy may work by effectively stimulating myoblasts to produce normal myofibrils and thereby promote the regeneration and repair of the SCM[17, 25]. In addition, effective physical therapy allows the muscles of the neck to alternate between tension and relaxation, increasing the blood supply.
During physical treatment, the occurrence of MM in the SCM is not rare, with a reported incidence of 8–9%[1, 18]. However, its definition and clinical manifestations are not clear. We defined it as a partial or complete rupture of the involved SCM during manual stretching of the head and neck with intentionally accelerated speed, manual stretching with unintentionally accelerated speed, and conventional manual stretching with constant speed. We described MM as a tetrad of signs: a snapping sound, an instant increase in the range of neck rotation, a shift of the SCM mass from above to below or from below to above, and enlargement of the SCM mass with a loss of SCM continuity on palpation (Fig. 3; Supplementary Fig. 2). In our opinion, MM is a special clinical phenomenon in physical treatment, and not a deleterious event that may lead to poor outcome (Fig. 4).
3.2 Reasons for MM
The typical manifestation of CMT is the presence of a palpable mass in the substance of the contracted SCM[17]. According to previous literature[4, 18]and our clinical experience(Supplementary Material 1, case one and Supplementary Material 2, case two), infants with CMT usually present with a mass 1–3 cm in diameter around 15 days after birth, with a varying degree of hardness depending on the extent of SCM fibrosis. Professional physiotherapy can remove the mass within one year, as well as reduce the tightness of the involved SCM[1, 17, 25–27].
In early CMT, the muscle fibers of the SCM are disordered and include multiple cell types such as fibroblasts, myoblasts, adipocytes, and mesenchymal-like cells. The basic pathological changes of CMT are fibrosis, fat infiltration of the extracellular matrix (ECM), and decreased muscle fibers[14]. Transmission electron microscopy showed that the younger the child with CMT, the greater the extent of muscle fiber disarray and cell proliferation in the ECM[28]. Therefore we speculate that, in early CMT, disorganized muscle fibers and multiple components in the ECM may lead to a disordered structure and decreased stability of the SCM, with a high risk of a rupture. In our study, the children developed MM at around 31 days, and approximately 90% of the events occurred in the first physiotherapy session. Age at initial physiotherapy session was the risk factor for the occurrence of MM during treatment. Our results support the above speculation in the context of pathological findings and transmission electron microscopy research.
In one case of CMT (Supplementary Material 1, case one), ultrasound and MRI images revealed a swollen and torn SCM with ring edema immediately after MM; and swelling in the mastoid portion of the SCM subsided on physical examination three days later, indicating an incomplete rupture of the SCM (Fig. 2). However, due to a lack of dynamic MRI comparison before and after, it was unclear whether MM occurred in the proximal portion, the distal portion, or the mass itself. It was also unknown what microstructural changes happened in the SCM mass and the connection with the proximal and distal muscle tissues before and after MM.
3.3 Risk factors for MM
Cheng et al.[10] found a higher incidence of MM during physical treatment in children with CMT who presented earlier and with a more severe case, and where DDH was present. Kasai et al.[20]intentionally induced MM in children with CMT by increasing the stretching force, and observed that children with a larger SCM mass and more severe limitation of neck motion had a higher risk of MM during physiotherapy. They also found a higher frequency in infants around three weeks of age and a lower frequency among those over one month. In a study of 452 cases of SCM masses[17], approximately 8% of children developed MM during physiotherapy, and that it was more likely in children with DDH, left-side involvement, a rotation deficit of > 15°, and under one month old at presentation. In our study, a younger age at initial physiotherapy, a greater maximum thickness of the involved SCM, a greater thickness difference of the involved and normal SCMs, a higher thickness ratio of the involved to normal SCM, and the presence of DDH were associated with a higher risk of MM during treatment. The non-conditional logistic regression analysis demonstrated age at initial physiotherapy as the risk factor for MM. Our results were consistent with previous studies[10, 17, 20].
Therefore, this study indicated that physical therapists should carefully investigate relevant risk factors, inform the patient’s guardians of potential risk, and take preventive measures before manipulation.
3.4 Complications of MM and treatment
MM occasionally occurs in the process of physical therapy for CMT, but its mechanism and effects on prognosis remain unclear. Although patients will experience relaxation of the SCM and improvement of the range of neck rotation and side flexion after the event, they may develop complications such as hemorrhagic spots on the head and face, nausea and vomiting, local skin bruise or rupture, SCM swelling, skull base fracture, clavicle fracture, and cerebrospinal fluid otorrhea[29]. These may raise concerns for therapists and guardians. Inexperienced physiotherapists without standardized training often have no idea how to explain MM to guardians and what to do next. Our study primarily concluded that children with MM generally had a good outcome. Physiotherapists and guardians should not be overly concerned about the occurrence of MM during physical treatment. However, if MM does occur, physiotherapists should immediately stop the treatment, closely monitor the child’s vital signs, and examine the SCM mass for size, position, fluctuation, surrounding swelling, and ecchymosis.
3.5 Effects of MM on outcome
Cheng et al.[18]reported comparable response rates to physiotherapy for CMT in children with MM (95% of 41 cases) and without MM (90.7% of 404 cases), indicating similar therapeutic effects between children with and without MM. Furthermore, they observed that MM had no long-term adverse effects on children in a follow-up of 3.5 years. The authors explained that their research could not determine whether it was necessary to intentionally induce MM during physiotherapy. However, Shinoda et al.[21]thought that intentional induction of MM in physiotherapy was an effective treatment approach for CMT.
We found that the MM group was younger at diagnosis and initial physiotherapy than the NMM group, which suggested that children who were diagnosed and treated at an earlier time would be more likely to develop MM during physical treatment. Compared with the NMM group, the MM group had fewer physiotherapy sessions from the start to clinical cure, a shorter time to disappearance of the SCM mass, and a higher total Cheng–Tang rating score. No significant differences were observed in craniofacial asymmetry parameters. These results indicated that early recognition and treatment of CMT could help to improve therapeutic effects and shorten the course of treatment.
Nevertheless, based on our research and clinical experience, we do not think it necessary to induce MM with intentionally accelerated manipulation, as previous research suggested[20, 21]. We recommend that physiotherapists do not consider intentional induction of MM as a goal of treatment, but understand and pay attention to this phenomenon to prevent or treat relevant complications. Studies to compare the efficacy of intentional manipulation with acceleration and conventional manipulation with constant speed are needed.
3.6 SCM changes after MM
We followed up the children with MM for changes in the SCM, determined through physical examination (palpation and active and passive neck motion), ultrasonography (before MM, immediately after MM, and at final follow-up), and MRI. The results indicated an incomplete rupture of the SCM, possibly a rupture within the SCM mass or a local muscle tear. In addition, the final follow-up ultrasound images revealed a generally clear echotexture of the muscle fibers but with local thinning of the SCM, demonstrating the development of amyotrophy in patients with MM (Fig. 5).
So far, there are few reports on MM during physical treatment for CMT. The long-term effects of MM on the outcome of children with CMT and its influencing factors are unclear. There is no information on MM in the 2018 evidence-based clinical practice guideline for physical therapy management of CMT published by the American Physical Therapy Association[9]. This 5.5-year follow-up study demonstrated no particular deleterious effects of MM in children with CMT. Our findings can help physiotherapists understand MM in the process of physiotherapy, and provide a guide to standardized physiotherapy for infants with CMT.
This study shows a limitation in its small sample from a single center, which may lead to selection bias. In subsequent studies, we will increase the sample size and add more objective parameters, such as quantification of craniofacial deformity changes, to reduce the subjective effects of doctors’ and guardians’ observation. Our team are preparing a prospective multi-center study with a large amount of detailed data, and hope to use big medical data analysis to provide a new comprehensive individualized treatment strategy for CMT.