The Effect of Physical Activity Level on Trait Anxiety in College Students: The Mediating Role of Executive Function

Abstract

Objectives: This study aimed to analyze the relationship between physical activity level, executive function, and trait anxiety and focused on investigating the mediating role of the subcomponents of executive functions between different levels of physical activity intensity and trait anxiety.

Methods: The International Physical Activity Questionnaire, State-Trait Anxiety Inventory, Stroop task, 1-back task, and More-odd shifting task were used to analyze 248 college students by one-way ANOVA, linear regression analysis, and structural equation modeling analysis.

Results: Trait anxiety were significantly correlated with shifting function (r=0.182, P=0.004) and inhibition function (r=0.163, P=0.010) and not with working memory (r=0.056, P=0.385). High-intensity physical activity level was most highly correlated with inhibition function (Beta=-0.144, P=0.024) and working memory (Beta=-0.208, P=0.001), and low-intensity physical activity level was most highly correlated with shifting function (Beta=-0.211, P=0.001). Physical activity level had a 72.31% direct effect on reducing trait anxiety (B=-0.195), with 11.79% mediated by inhibition function (B=-0.023) and 15.90% by shifting function (B=-0.031). High-intensity physical activity level had a direct effect on alleviating trait anxiety in 81.08% (B=-0.150), 9.19% mediated by inhibition function (B=-0.017), and 9.73% mediated by shifting function (B=-0.018). The effect of medium-intensity physical activity level on trait anxiety was 40.91% mediated by inhibition function (B=-0.018) and 56.82% mediated by shifting function (B=0.025). The effect of the low-intensity physical activity level on trait anxiety was mediated 34.62% by inhibition function (B=-0.018) and 65.38% by shifting function (B=-0.034).

Conclusion: College students with trait anxiety suffer from impaired inhibition and shifting function. The facilitation effects of physical activity levels on executive function subcomponents were, in descending order, working memory, shifting function, and inhibition function, with high-intensity physical activity level contributing most to the facilitation of working memory and inhibition function, and low-intensity physical activity level contributing most to the promotion of shifting function. Physical activity promotes both inhibition and shifting functions, which in turn affect trait anxiety. The high-intensity physical activity level has a direct effect on trait anxiety, while the anxiolytic effect of medium and low-intensity physical activity level is mediated exclusively through executive functions, with the highest mediating effect of shifting function.

Introduction

Anxiety is an individual's emotional experience of worry, annoyance, and uneasiness about existing or potentially threatening situations, often accompanied by irritability, somatic tension, and sleep disturbances^{[1, 2]}. It is reported that 11.11%~39.88% of college students suffer from the invasion of anxiety^[3-5], 48.74%~49.04% of college students with anxiety symptoms have self-injurious behaviors^[5,,6], and the high correlation between anxiety and suicidal ideation has become another high-risk factor for suicide in addition to depression^[7]. Anxiety is divided into state anxiety and trait anxiety. Trait anxiety is a relatively stable and individualized anxiety tendency over a period of time^[8]. Compared with state anxiety, trait anxiety is a more dangerous condition, especially for individuals with high trait anxiety, who are more vulnerable to anxiety disorders, depression, and Alzheimer's disease under stressful situations^{[9, 10]}, and are of great concern to researchers and college administrators.

Executive function is a high-level cognitive process that controls and regulates other cognitive processes during complex cognitive tasks^[11], and contains three core subcomponents: inhibition, shifting and working memory^[12]. The academic consensus is that anxiety impairs executive function. Individuals with high trait anxiety have longer reaction times and higher error rates on inhibition tasks^[13], struggle more to inhibit distracting information^[14] and have longer N2 latencies and higher wave amplitudes^[15]. They also react longer and have higher error rates on shifting tasks^[16], and as task complexity increases, the disadvantage of shifting function becomes more pronounced^[17]. Anxiety levels also correlate negatively with performance on tasks such as n-back and verbal-visual-spatial memory^[18]. It has been found that executive function and emotional state interact with each other. An excellent emotional state promotes a high level of cognitive regulation, and conversely, high executive function helps individuals cope with real-life dilemmas reasonably and efficiently and reduces the generation of negative emotions^[19].

Physical activity is an effective means of relieving negative emotions such as anxiety, with the advantages of high compliance, low side effects, and stable outcome^[20]. Several Meta-analyses have shown that regular exercise for more than two weeks can significantly reduce anxiety symptoms in people of different ages^[21-23]. In addition, physical activity may also indirectly improve mood by enhancing executive function. For example, physical activity increases individual arousal levels, enhances cerebral blood perfusion^[24], and promotes brain structure, especially gray matter integrity in the prefrontal and medial temporal regions^[25], which in turn improves executive function, while activity in brain regions such as the anterior cingulate gyrus, medial frontal gyrus, hippocampus, and dorsolateral prefrontal lobes is associated with anxiety^[26.27]. Increased brain neuroendocrine levels after exercise stimulate catecholamine secretion in the brain^{[28, 29]}, which in turn improves executive function in individuals, while catecholamines such as dopamine, epinephrine, and norepinephrine are all major neurotransmitters influencing emotional states^{[30, 31]}. Therefore, it has been proposed that executive function serves as a mediating role between physical activity and emotion improvement^[32].

Reviewing past studies, previous authors have more often explored the relationship between physical activity levels and anxiety and the effect of improving executive function, with the paucity of research on the mechanisms of how executive function plays a role between physical participation and the improvement of anxiety, and there are still inconsistent results on whether the executive function is impaired in anxious groups of college students, requiring more evidence to come from future research. Are college students with trait anxiety impaired cognitively? How does physical activity level affect trait anxiety and executive function, and what is the relationship between the three? Does physical activity level affect trait anxiety through executive function, partially or fully mediated? Based on previous research results, the research team used one-way ANOVA, linear regression analysis, and structural equation modeling analysis to demonstrate each of the above issues in an effort to discover whether the executive function is impaired in college students with trait anxiety, to clarify the underlying mechanisms by which physical activity level affects trait anxiety and the respective mediating roles of executive function subcomponents, so as to improve the theoretical system that physical activity improves cognitive and emotional states and to provide precise management solutions for college administrators.

1 Participants And Methods

1.1 Participants

College students were recruited online under voluntary principles. Inclusion criteria were no mental illness, no previous use of barbiturates, benzodiazepines, or chloral hydrate, no strenuous exercise, and no caffeine or alcoholic beverages 24 hours prior to testing. The study was approved by the Ethics committee of Shanghai University of Sport.

1.2 Testing Process

The tests were all conducted during the period of 13:30-16:30.

(1) The questionnaire was distributed to the participants. Before filling out the questionnaire, the investigator read out the instructions and explained the contents, explaining that the data obtained were for scientific research only and emphasizing that the answers were true, independent, and voluntary. During the filling process, the participants were prompted to answer seriously according to the requirements. After completing the questionnaire, the investigator checked for missing items or answers contrary to common sense (e.g., age, height, and weight were outside the range of normal college students) and ensured that the information was complete by filling in the questionnaire again.

(2) The order of the test tasks for performing the functional subcomponents was assigned according to an Excel random sequence to eliminate the effects of learning and fatigue as much as possible. Subjects were asked to press the key on their responses as soon as possible with the assurance of correctness and were informed that their test scores would be compared within the cluster to ensure subjective effort.

(3) Questionnaires with a filling time shorter than 2 minutes were excluded, trait anxiety questionnaires with five or more consecutive regular answers (e.g., 1111, 2222, 1234, 4321, etc.) were excluded, questionnaires with a total physical activity level of more than three times the standard deviation were excluded, and samples of executive function tasks with a correct rate of less than 75% or a response time exceeding three times the standard deviation were excluded, resulting in the inclusion of a final sample of 248 individuals. The specific process is shown in Figure 1.

1.3 Measurement Tools

1.3.1 State-trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI)

The State-trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) was revised by Spielberger^[33] and contained two subscales, the State Anxiety Inventory (S-AI) and the Trait Anxiety Inventory (T-AI). Only the Trait Anxiety Inventory was used in this study, containing 20 items, including 11 positive and nine negative scoring items. Four levels of scoring were used: "1" for almost never, "2" for somewhat, "3" for often, and "4" almost always. Higher scores indicated higher levels of trait anxiety. A validation factor analysis of the scale showed χ/df=3.90, TLl=0.92, CFI=0.94, RMSEA=0.05, and SRMR=0.05, indicating good construct validity. The scale Cronbach alpha coefficient was 0.81.

1.3.2 International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ)

The International Physical Activity Questionnaire is one of the most valid and internationally accepted questionnaires for measuring physical activity levels in adults, containing seven questions that assess the subject's exercise over the past week. The questionnaire classified different physical activities into three intensities: high, medium, and low, with metabolic equivalent (MET) assigned to 8.0, 4.0, and 3.3, respectively. A certain intensity physical activity level = corresponding MET assignment x weekly frequency (day) x time per day (min). The total physical activity level was the sum of the three intensity physical activity levels. The Cronbach alpha coefficient for this scale was 0.90.

1.3.3 Executive Function Test

The executive function test was implemented by E-prime 3.0 software, with a computer screen refresh rate of 60Hz, via external keyboard keys.

The Stroop task evaluated the inhibition function. The stimulus materials were randomly presented Chinese characters "red,” "green," and "blue" with different colors, and the presentation time was 1500ms, with a stimulus interval of 750ms. Subjects were asked to judge the color of the Chinese characters, ignoring the word meaning interference, and the red, green, and blue words corresponded to the key of H, J, and K. The formal test was conducted for 48 trials.

1-back task assessed the working memory. Arabic numerals were presented one by one in the center of the screen, with a presentation time of 1500ms and a stimulus interval of 750ms. Subjects were asked to carefully view and memorize the presented numerals and respond by pressing the F key if they were the same as the previous one or the L key if they were different. The formal test was divided into two segments of 25 trials each.

A more-odd shifting task evaluated the shifting function. Arabic numbers were presented one by one in the center of the screen, with a presentation time of 2000ms and a stimulus interval of 1000ms. Subjects were asked to judge the numbers (1 to 9, but without 5). The first part was size judgment: After red numbers were presented, press F for numbers less than five and L for numbers greater than five. The second part was odd-even judgment: After green numbers were presented, press F for odd numbers and L for even numbers. The third part was the mixed judgment: the presented red number led to size judgment, and green led to odd-even judgment. The first and second parts had 16 trials each, and the third part had 32 trials.

Each task had a practice session before the formal test. Based on previous studies, we subtracted the average reaction time between the incongruent and congruent conditions for inhibition, the average reaction time for working memory, and the average reaction time between the congruent and non-congruent conditions for shifting^{[34, 35]}.

1.4 Mathematical Statistics

The measurement data were expressed as mean ± standard deviation, and the results were retained to 3 decimal places, and one-way ANOVA and LSD post hoc multiple testing was used for comparison between groups. Count data were expressed as n (%), and intergroup comparisons were performed by chi-square analysis. Pearson correlation analysis and linear regression analysis were used to investigate the relationship between physical activity level, executive function, and trait anxiety. The Harman one-way test was used to test for common method bias effects, and structural equation models were developed to examine the role of executive function subcomponents in the relationship between physical activity level and trait anxiety (all variables were standardized before modeling). Model evaluation metrics were selected from RMR (root mean square residual), RMSEA (root mean square error of approximation), GFI (goodness of fit index), and NFI (normed fit index). normed fit index), CFI (comparative fit index)^[36]. The path analysis parameters were estimated using the nonparametric percentage bootstrap method (no strict requirements for the distribution of variables), the number of samples was set to 5000, and the bias-corrected 95% confidence interval of the mediated path product did not cross 0 to define the mediating effect as statistically significant, with the Percentile 95% CI as a secondary indicator. All statistical inferences were tested by a two-tailed test, and the test level α was set at 0.05. p < 0.05, p < 0.01 and p < 0.001 were marked with "*", "**" and "*** ", all representing differences with statistical significance. One-way ANOVA, LSD post hoc multiple testing, chi-square analysis, Pearson correlation analysis, Harman one-way test, and multiple linear regression analysis were performed with SPSS Statistics 23.0 software, and structural equation modeling, path analysis, and testing were performed with Amos 23.0 software.

2 Results

2.1 Executive Functions and Demographic Characteristics of College Students with Different Levels of Trait Anxiety

Based on previous studies, we divided trait anxiety into three groups^[37], with high trait anxiety being one standard deviation above the mean score (39.931+9.161≈49); low trait anxiety being one standard deviation below the mean score (39.931-9.161≈31), and high, medium, and low trait anxiety scores were 52.805±3.132, 40.795±5.230, and 26.680±2.559, respectively.

Pearson's bivariate correlation analysis showed that college students' trait anxiety scores were significantly correlated with shifting function (r=0.182, P=0.004) and inhibition function (r=0.163, P=0.010) and not with working memory (r=0.056, P=0.385), as shown in Figure 2. One-way ANOVA showed that the inhibition function of the low trait anxiety group was significantly better than that of the high trait anxiety group (P=0.006), while the shifting function of the low trait anxiety group was significantly better than that of the medium trait anxiety group (P=0.007) and the high trait anxiety group (P=0.003), with no statistically significant difference in working memory between the three groups (P=0.278). There were no significant differences in BMI, age, gender, and percentage of only children between the three groups (all P>0.05), as detailed in Table 1.

Table 1 Executive Functions and Demographic Characteristics of College Students with Different Levels of Trait Anxiety

2.2 Effect of Physical Activity Levels on Trait Anxiety

Linear regression analysis was performed with physical activity level and different intensity levels of physical activity as independent variables and trait anxiety as the dependent variable, respectively. The results showed that physical activity level (Beta=-0.195, P=0.002, R²=0.038), high-intensity physical activity level (Beta=-0.185, P=0.004, R²=0.034), and medium-intensity physical activity level (Beta=-0.129, P=0.042, R²=0.017) all negatively predicted college students' trait anxiety levels, while the regression coefficients for low-intensity physical activity level (Beta=-0.047, P=0.463, R²=0.002) were not significant, as shown in Figure 3.

2.3 Effect of Physical Activity Level on Executive Function

Linear regression analysis was performed using the physical activity level and different intensity physical activity levels as independent variables and each subcomponent of executive functions as dependent variables, in separate cases. The results demonstrated that physical activity level (Beta=-0.285, P<0.001, R2=0.081), high intensity physical activity level (Beta=-0.208, P=0.001, R2=0.043), medium intensity physical activity level (Beta=-0.170, P=0.007, R2=0.029), low intensity physical activity level (Beta=-0.187, P=0.003, R2=0.035) all negatively predicted working memory response time in college students. Physical activity level (Beta=-0.234, P<0.001, R2=0.055), medium intensity physical activity level (Beta=-0.159, P=0.012, R2=0.025), and low intensity physical activity level (Beta=-0.211, P=0.001, R2=0.044) all negatively predicted college students' shifting function effects, while the regression coefficient for the high-intensity physical activity level (Beta=-0.123, P=0.053, R2=0.015) was not significant. Physical activity level (Beta=-0.205, P=0.001, R2=0.042), high intensity physical activity level (Beta=-0.144, P=0.024, R2=0.021), medium intensity physical activity level (Beta=-0.133, P=0.037, R2=0.018), and low intensity physical activity level (Beta=-0.131, P=0.039, R2=0.017) all negatively predicted the amount of inhibition function effects in college students, as presented in Figure 4.

2.4 Construction and Validation of a Structural Relationship Model of Physical Activity Level, Executive Function, and Trait Anxiety in College Students

To examine the degree of influence of physical activity level and executive function on trait anxiety and to explore the feasibility of a structural relationship model, a multiple linear regression analysis (entry method) was conducted with trait anxiety score as the dependent variable and physical activity level, inhibition function, working memory, and shifting function as independent variables. The results indicated that the regression model passed the significance test (F(4, 243)=4.882, p=0.001 , R2=0.075), and physical activity level (Beta=-0.156, p=0.018), inhibition function (Beta=0.147, p=0.038), and shifting function (Beta=0.135, p=0.038) for the trait anxiety in college students were all significant predictors, while the regression coefficient for working memory (Beta=-0.081, P=0.261) was not significant. The VIF values of each independent variable were all <5, and the effect of multicollinearity could be largely excluded from the results of this study. As detailed in Table 2.

Table 2 Multiple Linear Regression Analysis of Influencing Factors of Trait Anxiety among College Students

To test for bias in common methods, a confirmatory factor analysis of the original entries and executive function performance of the International Physical Activity Questionnaire and Trait Anxiety Inventory was conducted using the Harman one-way test. Eight factors with characteristic roots greater than 1 were obtained, and the variance explained by the first factor was 23.11%, which was much less than the critical value of 40%. Therefore, the effect of common method bias could be largely excluded from the results of this study.

The research hypotheses were tested based on the interrelationship of physical activity level, executive function, and trait anxiety in college students. Model 1 was established with physical activity level as the independent variable, executive function as the mediating variable, and trait anxiety as the dependent variable, followed by three sub-models with high, medium, and low intensity physical activity levels as the independent variables, respectively. The paths with insignificant coefficients were removed one by one, and the path coefficients were recalculated until all passed the Bootstrap significance test. CMIN/df = 1.985 for model 1, indicating a good model fit, fully meeting the reference criteria of RMR < 0.05, RMSEA < 0.08, and GFI, NFI, and CFI values > 0.9, indicating a reasonable and reliable structural equation model. The CMIN/df of the three sub-models were all <3, and each goodness-of-fit index basically met the standard. The path analysis is shown in Figure 5, and the results of the mediating effect test are shown in Table 3.

Physical activity level had a 72.31% direct effect on reducing trait anxiety (B=-0.195, 95% bootstrap CI: -0.313, -0.082), with the mediating effect of inhibition function accounting for 11.79% (B=-0.023, 95% bootstrap CI: -0.067, -0.001) and the mediating effect of shifting function accounting for 15.90% (B=-0.031, 95% bootstrap CI: -0.076, -0.004). High intensity physical activity level had a direct effect on the reduction of trait anxiety of 81.08% (B=-0.150, 95% bootstrap CI: -0.290, -0.040), with the mediating effect of inhibition function accounting for 9.19% (B=-0.017, 95% bootstrap CI: -0.058,0) and the mediating effect of shifting function of 9.73% (B=-0.018, 95% bootstrap CI: -0.054, -0.002). The effect of medium-intensity physical activity level on trait anxiety was fully mediated by executive function, with the mediating effect of inhibitory function accounting for 40.91% (B=-0.018, 95% bootstrap CI: -0.054, -0.001) and the mediating effect of shifting function accounting for 56.82% (B=0.025, 95% bootstrap CI: - 0.064, -0.005). The effect of low-intensity physical activity level on trait anxiety was exclusively mediated by executive function, with 34.62% of the mediating effect mediated by inhibitory function (B=-0.018, 95% bootstrap CI: -0.052, -0.002) and 65.38% of the mediating effect mediated by shifting function (B=-0.034, 95% bootstrap CI: -0.076, -0.008). Different intensity levels of physical activity effectively improved working memory (B=-0.187 to -0.208) but working memory did not mediate between physical activity level and trait anxiety.

Table 3 Results of Bootstrap Test for Mediating Effects

3 Discussion

The present study confirmed that physical activity levels significantly reduced trait anxiety in college students, consistent with the results of previous studies^[38-40]. The intrinsic mechanisms are relatively complex, and the physiological changes caused by exercise, such as decreased hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis reactivity, increased cardiac natriuretic concentration, upregulated BDNF levels, increased neurocentral endorphins, downregulated postsynaptic 5-hydroxytryptamine receptors, increased irisin levels, increased hypothalamic temperature, hippocampal neurogenesis, and increased prefrontal alpha wave activity, are all associated with anxiety relief^[41-44], suggesting that the anxiolytic exercise effects may be mediated by multiple physiological mechanisms. It has also been shown that many psychosocial factors have a mediating role in the positive effects of physical activity levels on mental health in college students, such as self-esteem levels^[45], self-efficacy^[46], and social support^[47]. Rather, the present study results provide new insights into the field, where improvements in inhibition and shifting functions could mediate the anxiolytic effects of exercise, with different pathways of the effects at different levels of physical activity intensity. Specifically, there was a significant direct effect of high intensity of physical activity levels, which is generally consistent with previous studies^{[48, 49]}, probably attributed to the fact that high-intensity level of physical activity provides more stimulation to increase body temperature and endorphin secretion. It is worth noting that the physical activity intensity in the scale relies on self-perception rather than physiological indicators, which may explain some inconsistent findings, but it suggests that the direct effect of trait anxiety reduction requires adequate exercise load stimulation. While the effect of low to medium intensity levels of physical activity on trait anxiety was fully mediated by executive functions, and the mediating effect of shifting function accounted for a higher proportion than that of inhibition, suggesting that physical activity levels reduce trait anxiety with multiple pathways of effects and that exercise program design needs to take different intensities and durations into account, with some structural effects.

The present study found that physical activity level was selective in promoting executive function subcomponents. The effects in descending order were working memory, shifting function, and inhibition function, with high-intensity physical activity level being the most favorable for promoting working memory and inhibition function and low-intensity physical activity level being the most favorable for promoting shifting function, which is basically consistent with the findings of Chen et al.^[35]. In contrast, Liu Junyi^[34] found that aerobic exercise had the most significant effect on college students' working memory promotion, with inhibition function and shifting function second. The inconsistent conclusions may be explained by the fact that the author chose a simpler and single form of aerobic physical exercise, which only required the completion of a few simple prescribed movements, and the effect of the exercise form on shifting function was smaller. In addition, molecular and cellular mechanism studies found that exercise elevates peripheral brain-derived neurotrophic factor and insulin-like growth factor 1 levels, increases vascular endothelial growth factor and serotonin concentrations and stimulates hippocampal neurogenesis, thereby promoting executive function^{[50, 51]}. Structural and functional changes in the brain can also mediate enhanced cognitive performance after exercises, such as increased volume of the hippocampus, gray matter, and white matter, improved integrity of white matter, and increased functional connectivity of frontal executive networks^[52]. There is extensive evidence for the beneficial effects of sports participation on various executive function subcomponents and exploring its "dose effects" and "selective effects" is advancing.

The critical finding of this study is that physical activity could indirectly affect trait anxiety by improving executive function. Evidence suggested that trait anxious individuals had enhanced activity in the dorsolateral prefrontal lobe and diminished connections with the posterior lateral frontal lobe, dorsolateral amygdala, and left syrinx gyrus. These results indicated that their nervous system had reduced processing efficiency, which led to reduced attentional control system function^[53], and that the enhanced dorsolateral prefrontal activity in anxious individuals might be related to their attempts to compensate for the impairment in attentional control function, which further supports the attentional control theory proposed by Eysenck et al.^[54]. And cognitive neural model suggests that high-anxiety individuals have reduced attentional control involvement from the top-down, resulting in insufficient prefrontal attentional control activation^[55]. In addition, individuals with executive function deficits have poor emotion regulation^[56], and cognitive training helps college students relieve anxiety^[57], both of which may have bidirectional effects. Given the close relationship between anxiety and executive functions and the overlap between brain mechanisms related to executive function and emotion activated by exercise, it is necessary to include an examination of executive function in the study of mechanisms of exercise for mental health. 

The significance of this study is that it provides the first insight into the relationship between physical activity level, executive function, and emotion improvement mediated by executive function, which also clarifies the effect of different intensity physical activity levels on improving trait anxiety. The findings not only reveal the importance of executive function in the study of physical activity and emotion but also further rationalize the behavioral mechanisms by which exercise promotes mental health.

4 Limitations And Prospects

1. This study used a cross-sectional design with limited ability to make causal inferences. More longitudinal studies are recommended in the future to explore further the relationship between temporal changes in physical activity level, executive function, and trait anxiety and the associated effect sizes.
2. This study only examined the intensity and duration of physical activity levels and was measured using a self-report questionnaire, which may have some subjective bias. It is recommended that future studies combine exercise form and frequency and use measurement tools such as accelerometers and heart rate bands to collect information from subjects for more accurate reporting of physical activity levels.
3. College students' sports participation habits and mental health status are inevitably influenced by the social environment during the same period. Whether the findings of this study can be generalized to other groups of people remains for further analysis and comparison.

5 Conclusion

College students with trait anxiety suffer from impaired inhibition and shifting function. The facilitation effects of physical activity levels on executive function subcomponents were, in descending order, working memory, shifting function, and inhibition function, with high-intensity physical activity level contributing most to the facilitation of working memory and inhibition function, and low-intensity physical activity level contributing most to the promotion of shifting function. Physical activity promotes both inhibition and shifting functions, which in turn affect trait anxiety. The high-intensity level of physical activity has a direct effect on trait anxiety, while the anxiolytic effect of medium and low-intensity levels of physical activity is mediated exclusively through executive functions, with the highest mediating effect of shifting function.

Declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate: 

For experiments involving human participants, informed consent has been obtained from all subjects (all adults) in this study. Our study was approved by the ethical committee of Shanghai University of Sport (102772021RT007), All methods were carried out in accordance with relevant guidelines and regulations.

Consent for publication: 

Not applicable.

Availability of data and materials:

The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Competing interests:

All authors do not have any possible conflicts of interest.

Funding:

Key Laboratory Project of Shanghai Science and Technology Commission (11DZ2261100).

Authors' contributions: 

Mr. Zhiwei DONG^a,1: data collect and analysis,

Mr. Peng WANG^a,1: writing original draft and executive function test,

Mrs. Xin XIN^a: data curation,

Mr. Jing WANG^b: data curation,

Mr. Jinlei ZHAO^b: data curation,

Mr. Xing WANG^a,*: review and editing.

Acknowledgments:

This work was supported by the Key Laboratory Project of Shanghai Science and Technology Commission (11DZ2261100).

References

1. Qi Ke, Hou Jinqin, Jiang Lan, et al. Influence of parental rearing patterns on adolescent trait anxiety: the mediating role of will control. [J]. Chinese Journal of Clinical Psychology, 2019, 27(02): 383–387.
2. NORBURY R, EVANS S. Time to think: Subjective sleep quality, trait anxiety and university start time [J]. Psychiatry Res, 2019, 271: 214–249.
3. Mu Jingjing, Su Puyu, Li Longchun, et al. A study on the correlation between psychological adjustment ability and anxiety and depression of college students.[J]. Journal of Bengbu Medical College, 2019, 44(06): 787–791.
4. RAMóN-ARBUéS E, GEA-CABALLERO V, GRANADA-LóPEZ J M, et al. The Prevalence of Depression, Anxiety and Stress and Their Associated Factors in College Students [J]. Int J Environ Res Public Health, 2020, 17(19): 7001.
5. Zhao Ying, Wang Yanqiu, Wang Jun, et al. Status and correlation analysis of depression and anxiety of self-injury behavior among college students [J]. Chinese Journal of School Health, 2021, 42(01): 92–95.
6. Li Lu. The relationship between non-suicidal self-injury behavior and depression and anxiety of Mongolian college students [J/OL]. Chinese Journal of School Health:1–4. DOI:10.16835/j.cnki.1000-9817.2022.01.021.
7. Luo Yihao, Huang Yanping, Su Binyuan. The relationship between depression, anxiety, loneliness and suicidal ideation of graduate students in colleges and universities.[J]. China Journal of Health Psychology, 2021, 29(09): 1412–1415.
8. Spielberger C D, F Gonzalez-Reigosa, Martinez-Urrutia A L, et al. Development of the Spanish edition of the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory [J]. Interamerican Journal of Psychology, 1971, 5(3–4):145–158.
9. LI S, WANG C, WANG W, et al. Trait anxiety, a personality risk factor associated with Alzheimer's Disease [J]. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry, 2021, 105: 110124.
10. DE BLES N J, RIUS OTTENHEIM N, VAN HEMERT A M, et al. Trait anger and anger attacks in relation to depressive and anxiety disorders [J]. J Affect Disord, 2019, 259: 259–65.
11. FUNAHASHI S. Neuronal mechanisms of executive control by the prefrontal cortex [J]. Neuroscience Research, 2001, 39(2): 147–165.
12. MIYAKE A, FRIEDMAN N P, EMERSON M J, et al. The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex “frontal lobe” tasks: A latent variable analysis [J]. Cognitive psychology, 2000, 41(1): 49–100.
13. Wang Shuzhen, Wang Youzhi. An experimental study on the relationship between anxiety and executive function subcomponents [J]. Journal of Northwest University (Philosophy and Social Sciences Edition), 2007, 37(002): 125–128.
14. YU Y, JIANG C, XU H, et al. Impaired cognitive control of emotional conflict in trait anxiety: a preliminary study based on clinical and non-clinical individuals [J]. Frontiers in psychiatry, 2018, 9: 120.
15. Bai Xuejun, Jia Liping, Wang Jingxin. Emotional priming effect of trait anxiety individuals under difficult Stroop tasks [J]. Psychological Science, 2016, 39(01): 8–12.
16. SHIELDS G S, MOONS W G, TEWELL C A, et al. The effect of negative affect on cognition: Anxiety, not anger, impairs executive function [J]. Emotion, 2016, 16(6): 792.
17. ANSARI T L, DERAKSHAN N, RICHARDS A. Effects of anxiety on task switching: evidence from the mixed antisaccade task [J]. Cognitive Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience, 2008, 8(3): 229–238.
18. MORAN, TIM P. Anxiety and Working Memory Capacity: A Meta-Analysis and Narrative Review [J]. Psychological Bulletin, 2016, 142(8): 831.
19. Chen Chun, Wang Quanhong, Liu Xianhua, et al. Study on the relationship between negative emotions and cognitive executive function. [J]. Progress in Modern Biomedicine, 2013, 13(06): 1149–1152 + 1114.
20. HALLGREN M, STUBBS B, VANCAMPFORT D, et al. Treatment guidelines for depression: Greater emphasis on physical activity is needed [J]. Eur Psychiatry, 2017, 40: 1–3.
21. AYLETT E, SMALL N, BOWER P. Exercise in the treatment of clinical anxiety in general practice - a systematic review and meta-analysis [J]. BMC Health Serv Res, 2018, 18(1): 559.
22. KAZEMINIA M, SALARI N, VAISI-RAYGANI A, et al. The effect of exercise on anxiety in the elderly worldwide: a systematic review and meta-analysis [J]. Health Qual Life Outcomes, 2020, 18(1): 363.
23. RAMOS-SANCHEZ C P, SCHUCH F B, SEEDAT S, et al. The anxiolytic effects of exercise for people with anxiety and related disorders: an update of the available meta-analytic evidence [J]. Psychiatry Research, 2021, 302: 114046.
24. KLEIN T, BAILEY T G, ABELN V, et al. Cerebral blood flow during interval and continuous exercise in young and old men [J]. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 2019, 51(7): 1523–31.
25. Hou Lijuan, Li Ju, Liu Ran, et al. Effects of exercise on cognitive function and brain structural basis in the elderly [J]. China Sport Science and Technology, 2020, 56(09): 14 – 9 + 65.
26. Ren Zhihong, Ruan Yijun, Zhao Qingbai, et al. Neuropsychological mechanism of depression and anxiety disorder treatment —— ALE meta-analysis of brain imaging research [J]. Acta Psychologyica Sinica, 2017, 49(10): 1302–1321.
27. LI J, OUYANG W. Application of PET Imaging in the Brain Regions of the Emotional Control Loop in Patients with Generalized Anxiety Disorder [J]. Journal of Healthcare Engineering, 2021, 2021: 4505227.
28. COOPER, C. J. Anatomical and physiological mechanisms of arousal, with special reference to the effects of exercise [J]. Ergonomics, 1973, 16(5): 601–609.
29. KRUK J, KOTARSKA K, ABOUL-ENEIN B H. Physical exercise and catecholamines response: benefits and health risk: possible mechanisms [J]. Free Radical Research, 2020, 54(2–3): 105–125.
30. STUBBENDORFF C, STEVENSON C W. Dopamine regulation of contextual fear and associated neural circuit function [J]. Eur J Neurosci, 2021, 54(8): 6933–47.
31. GOSMANN N P, COSTA M A, JAEGER M B, et al. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, and serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors for anxiety, obsessive-compulsive, and stress disorders: A 3-level network meta-analysis [J]. PLoS Med, 2021, 18(6): e1003664.
32. Lin Min, Yu lingjuan. the intermediary role of executive function in the improvement of emotion by exercise intervention [J]. Chinese Journal of School Health, 2015, 36(12): 5.
33. SPIELBERGER C D, GORSUCH R L, LUSHENE R E, et al. Manual for the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (Form Y1 – Y2) [J]. Consulting Psychogyists Press, 1983,
34. Liu Junyi. "dose effect" on the relationship between aerobic physical exercise and executive function of college students [J]. Journal Of Beijing university Of physical education, 2017, 40(001): 58–64.
35. Chen Aiguo, Yin Hengchan, Jun Yan, et al. effects of different intensity short-term aerobic exercise on executive function [J]. Acta Psychologyica Sinica, 2011,
36. Hou jietai, wen zhonglin, cheng zijuan. structural equation model and its application [M]. Education science press, 2006.
37. Ma H, Yan J, Wang Zhihong, et al. P3 changes in ERP under stress in trait anxiety disorder[J]. Chinese Journal of Clinical Psychology, 2005, 13(003): 330–2.
38. He Qiying. effect comparison of different intensity endurance run on anxiety disorder of college students [J]. Chinese Journal of School Health, 2016, 37(1):
39. ROGOWSKA A M, PAVLOVA I, KUŚNIERZ C, et al. Does Physical Activity Matter for the Mental Health of University Students during the COVID-19 Pandemic? [J]. Journal of Clinical Medicine, 2020, 9(11): 3494.
40. PUCCINELLI P J, DA COSTA T S, SEFFRIN A, et al. Reduced level of physical activity during COVID-19 pandemic is associated with depression and anxiety levels: an internet-based survey [J]. BMC Public Health, 2021, 21(1): 1–11.
41. UYSAL N, YUKSEL O, KIZILDAG S, et al. Regular aerobic exercise correlates with reduced anxiety and incresed levels of irisin in brain and white adipose tissue [J]. Neuroscience Letters, 2018, 676(92 – 7.
42. KANDOLA A, STUBBS B. Exercise and anxiety [J]. Physical Exercise for Human Health, 2020, 345–52.
43. ANDERSON E, SHIVAKUMAR G. Effects of Exercise and Physical Activity on Anxiety [J]. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 2013, 4(
44. DEBOER L B, POWERS M B, UTSCHIG A C, et al. Exploring exercise as an avenue for the treatment of anxiety disorders [J]. Expert review of neurotherapeutics, 2012, 12(8): 1011–22.
45. KAYANI S, KIYANI T, KAYANI S, et al. Physical Activity and Anxiety of Chinese University Students: Mediation of Self-System [J]. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 2021, 18(9): 4468.
46. XU Z, DU J. A mental health informatics study on the mediating effect of the regulatory emotional self-efficacy [J]. Mathematical Biosciences and Engineering: MBE, 2021, 18(3): 2775–88.
47. SABO A, KUEH Y C, ARIFIN W N, et al. The validity and reliability of the Malay version of the social support for exercise and physical environment for physical activity scales [J]. PloS one, 2020, 15(9): e0239725.
48. GERBER M, BRAND S, HERRMANN C, et al. Increased objectively assessed vigorous-intensity exercise is associated with reduced stress, increased mental health and good objective and subjective sleep in young adults [J]. Physiology & behavior, 2014, 135: 17–24.
49. Wei Jin, Ho Sang Y, Hoyo Ul K. Exploring the Effects of Exercise Intensity on State Anxiety [J]. China Sport Science, 2002, 22(3): 3.
50. MARINUS N, HANSEN D, FEYS P, et al. The impact of different types of exercise training on peripheral blood brain-derived neurotrophic factor concentrations in older adults: a meta-analysis [J]. Sports Medicine, 2019, 49(10): 1529–46.
51. JIANG Q, LOU K, HOU L, et al. The effect of resistance training on serum insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1): a systematic review and meta-analysis [J]. Complementary therapies in medicine, 2020, 50(102360.
52. STILLMAN C M, COHEN J, LEHMAN M E, et al. Mediators of Physical Activity on Neurocognitive Function: A Review at Multiple Levels of Analysis [J]. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 2016, 10(
53. ULRIKE BASTEN, CHRISTINE STELZEL, FIEBACH C J. Trait Anxiety Modulates the Neural Efficiency of Inhibitory Control [J]. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 2011, 23(10): 3132.
54. EYSENCK M W, DERAKSHAN N, SANTOS R, et al. Anxiety and cognitive performance: The attentional control theory [J]. Emotion, 2007, 7(2): 336–53.
55. BISHOP S. Trait anxiety and impoverished prefrontal control of attention [J]. Nature Neuroscience, 2009, 12(1): 92–8.
56. LANDIS T D, GARCIA A M, HART K C, et al. Differentiating symptoms of ADHD in preschoolers: the role of emotion regulation and executive function [J]. Journal of Attention Disorders, 2021, 25(9): 1260–71.
57. CALLINAN S, JOHNSON D, WELLS A. A Randomised Controlled Study of the Effects of the Attention Training Technique on Traumatic Stress Symptoms, Emotional Attention Set Shifting and Flexibility [J]. Cognitive Therapy & Research, 2015, 39(1): 4–13.