Definition
Game-based learning encompasses utilising gaming principles and directly applying them to real-life activities and settings to engage the end-users. According to Hartt, Hosseini and Mostafapour (2020), game-based learning is an emergent learning technique that has the capacity to increase student motivation, emotional engagement and enjoyment. Students engage in more active learning and the theory and practice of gamification are more suited within the education sector as far as planning and teaching are concerned.
Game-based teaching provides a deeper emphasis on guided discovery (Hartt et al., 2020). The active environment created by gaming applications alludes to practising the right way to do things; hence, creating an effective learning approach (Papadakis, 2018). Student motivation plays a fundamental role in knowledge acquisition, especially when it comes to learning a new language in adulthood. Attracting and maintaining student motivation is one of the main challenges for teachers in a traditional classroom setting. This approach to teaching allows adult learners to explore the relevant aspects of gaming concepts in a learning context formulated by the accordant educators. The digital gaming platforms provide and create virtual environments that are familiar and can easily be translated into real-life environments. According to Molin (2017), game-based learning is designed to strike a balance between the subject matter, content to be learned, gameplay and the future capacity for the user to retain and apply information in the real-world setting. These cognitive capabilities are very important for adult learners especially in retaining and applying the new L2 knowledge that is being learned (Żammit, 2021a; Żammit, 2021b).
Advantages of Game and Mobile-Based Learning
Digital games have been associated with improved language acquisition because games provide a vehicle for learners to improve their comprehension skills (Hung, Yang, Hwang, Chu & Wang, 2018). Gamifying language acquisition facilitates language self-efficacy and enhances mastery of a language (Dixon, Dixon & Jordan, 2022). Research on this topic shows that interactive and entertaining games effectively promote language acquisition, especially when the in-game interactions seem authentic.
Mobile-based digital language learning can be applied to older adults (Blume, 2020). Learners are expected to benefit significantly from improved working memory, a wider vocabulary and self-confidence in expressing themselves in the L2 as a result of practice and cues from mobile-based applications (Klimova, 2020). Furthermore, comprehension is one of the main factors that contributes to effective SLA (Qureshi & Aljanadbah, 2021). Games enhance language learners’ ability to understand the meaning of different words, phrases, word units and sentences in a more interactive and engaging manner (Purgina, Mozgovoy & Blake, 2019). Gaming applications for learning promote language comprehension in terms of the different elements used in spoken and written language as they provide the building blocks for word forms and sentences (Purgina et al., 2019).
Oral and written communication plays a vital role in teaching and learning. L2 communication skills involve active listening, speaking, reading and writing. These skills serve as the foundation that assists in expressing thoughts, information and feelings in some cases (Abdikarimova, Tashieva, Tashbolot kyzy & Abdullaeva, 2021). Game-based tasks support collaborative learning through socialisation and active participation amongst language learners (Kukulska‐Hulme & Viberg, 2018). Communication skills are enhanced through prompt feedback and peer coaching that creates an avenue for collaboration in game-based language learning. The digital application enables learners to achieve constructive dialogue on their own and amongst their peers, improving mastery of the L2 and thoughtful communication.
Orthographic awareness in language learning contributes to the development of word-specific representations in memory (Zarić, Hasselhorn & Nagler, 2021). Orthography defines the recognition of similar letter patterns, positions and combinations that create words and word groups. Orthographic awareness provides the underpinnings for spellings and sounding words. Mobile game-based interventions allow the development of phonics, which in turn have a positive effect on orthographic skills (Holz, Beuttler & Ninaus, 2018). Innovative technology is used in game-based learning to enhance orthography skills. According to Soltanlou, Jung, Roesch, Ninaus, Brandelik, Heller and Moeller (2017), games promote individual learning and reveal promising learning effects, more specifically for orthography.
Understanding semantics is a fundamental pillar in learning an L2 (Fernández-Fontecha, 2021). Interpretation of words, phrases, symbols and sentences comprises semantics, logic and references. The grasp of semantics improves a learners’ ability to understand the contexts of words, sentence relationships, word meanings and discourse (Alsayed, 2019). Game-based learning reinforces semantics and allows the mastery of an L2 (Idris, Said & Tan, 2020). Game-based learning applications provide an enjoyable and effective environment through visual images that represent semantic concepts such as vocabulary, making L2 teaching more effective (Gozcu & Caganaga, 2016). Research on online game-based platforms showcased proof of concept as an effective and engaging way for L2 learners to understand semantics (Usai, O'Neil & Newman, 2017).
Game-based learning improves memory capacity as it provides longer-lasting benefits for cognitive processes (Chang, Warden, Liang & Lin, 2018). Memory allows for encoding, storing and retrieval of information (Chang et al., 2018). Memory possesses a three-pronged significance in language learning. Working memory contributes to language comprehension, language production and vocabulary acquisition (Schwering & MacDonald, 2020). Game-based learning contributes to improvements in working memory. According to Wu and Huang (2017), mobile and game-based tools enhance memory and familiarity with the language while instilling both motivation and interest in the language. Learning through games thereby provides a visual interface that boosts the formation and maintenance of memories. Learners are fortified with the language knowledge for a longer period of time (Wu & Huang, 2017).
Xu, Banerjee, Ramirez, Zhu and Wijekumar (2019) purport that teachers utilise commercial online games for language-learning purposes because such tools are formulated specifically for the achievement and understanding of predetermined language skills and offer platforms that combine the pedagogical and gaming. Pedagogy comprises the techniques educators use to pass on information to learners both theoretically and practically. Game-based learning platforms allow teachers to gain benefits from both traditional and digital techniques of teaching, creating lasting and synergistic benefits for both parties, which is the teacher and the learner. Learners are exposed to the language from two different perspectives, reinforcing what is learned in the traditional classroom setting (Xu et al., 2019).
Digital learning games lay the groundwork that fosters a socio-cognitive process for L2 acquisition. According to Dowell, Nixon and Graesser (2019), learning is a social process that can be enhanced through game-based learning. Game-based learning platforms integrate a process that goes beyond the traditional domains of engagement through the promotion of the participatory learning approach through the provision of feedback. This point of view places SLA under the situated cognition theory, which argues that learning takes place in a context, which happens when learners are able to solve a problem (Auer & Tsiatsos, 2020). Through digital games, learners are able to solve problems that are embedded in the gaming challenges as they approach the game with the language used in the game and the learning outcomes in mind. Moreover, games provide learners with authentic content, especially when such games are created specifically for SLA. Content formation plays a critical role in the absorption and regurgitation of information relating to a new language (Short, 2017).
According to Coleman and Money (2020), digital gaming and learning platforms provide for the integration of reflective thinking and problem-solving skills in the learning process, thereby imparting learners with the opportunities to learn an L2 and improve their information communication technology (ICT) skills. This concept is based on the fact that educational pressures around the world are compelling learners to learn for the sake of global competitiveness, which means that it is no longer enough to learn just to perform well in examinations but also to gain skills that can increase one’s competitiveness in the global arena. As such, digital games increase the ICT literacy of learners while increasing their language-learning skills to meet the fundamental goals of effective learning (Coleman & Money, 2020).
Digital game-based learning creates a wider range of interactive negotiations, thereby allowing students to gain opportunities for accessing numerous comprehensible inputs, improving L2 acquisition. Breien and Wasson (2021) suggest that game-based learning has a positive effect on engagement since learners are motivated by the interfaces and design of the games based on likes and preferences, gaming habits and informational interests. This technology provides learners with more opportunities for the negotiation of their social learning contexts and interactive communication, compared with the traditional language-learning setting provided by classrooms (Breien & Wasson, 2021).
Reinders (2017) explains that utilising digital games has a direct influence on the number of behavioural, cognitive, perceptual, motivational and effective outcomes in learners. Additionally, studies reveal the positive effects of digital-based learning on the motivations of learners and their willingness to use the target language for socialisation, their willingness to communicate and other elements (Reinders, 2017).
According to Alyaz and Genc (2016), digital game-based language learning has changed language-learning contexts as millions of applications have been developed for online gaming activities in both mobile and web versions, some of which are integrated for SLA processes. Globalisation and the advancement of technology globally have also increased the demand for SLA, which necessitates innovative and inspiring teaching and learning methods stimulated by various technological applications to meet the ever-increasing demand (Aqib, Eugster, Ho, Jaumotte, Osorio-Buitron & Piazza, 2018). The global arena provides an avenue for the use of online game-based learning as a means to connect various learner groups and teachers. Video games are examples of game-based learning that are not only entertaining but also have exciting features that are able to motivate and lure players to play more; hence, they can be utilised by language educators to enhance learning motivation (Anastasiadis, Lampropoulos & Siakas, 2018).
The implementation of IT has been reported to be the solution to the majority of challenges that are currently being experienced in the educational sector and especially in terms of language learning. With the adoption of game-based learning in the SLA context, the learners’ needs are assessed, including consideration of the materials to purchase, distribution of the course content and materials, and development of educational games (Hung et al., 2018). In this context, the majority of schools depend on commercially produced games, and they are specifically designed to ensure the achievement of specific learning outcomes according to the levels of the learners. There are also digital games that use IT for the purpose of promoting the achievement of the desired learning outcomes (Anastasiadis, Lampropoulos & Siakas, 2018).
Disadvantages of Game and Mobile-Based Learning
The complexity of the game and mobile-based learning applications poses a threat that may stifle positive educational outcomes for students. Users may become heavily focused on the working of the software rather than the main goal, in this case, L2 learning. Games could present a distraction that takes away from the pedagogical process, putting language learners in a worse position than where they were in their L2 level (Ebrahimzadeh & Alavi, 2017). According to Akçayır M. and Akçayır G. (2017), a large number of challenges come about as a result of the difficulty in using game-based learning applications. The level of complexity of game-based applications instils a potential pitfall for the language-learning process.
From a financial standpoint, computer games are expensive to develop, purchase, use and maintain. Additionally, materials required to use learning software can be costly and constantly require consistent technical support that is compounded in the long run (Fotaris, Pellas, Kazanidis & Smith, 2017). Over time, the costs associated with game-based applications become too expensive for institutions, teachers or students to bear. Game-based learning requires a high cost to run a myriad of learning activities, which constantly require expensive learning materials (Fotaris et al., 2017). Institutions are opposed to game-based learning as it requires additional human and non-human resources (Pinto & Ferreira, 2017). The application of large-scale digital games for students remains an expensive prospect for most schools, especially for L2 learning. Zhang, Zhang, Chang, Aziz, Esche and Chassapis (2018) purport that game-based applications in the educational domain are still a rather expensive proposition to produce and maintain. Evidence suggests that game-based learning is not yet fully acceptable within mainstream education since its integration and utility are expensive (Shi, Wang & Ding, 2019).
The use of game and mobile-based learning for language promotes the creation of a digital divide. Learning software applications possess the potential to create a huge rift between students who have access to computers and digital networks and those who do not. Game-based learning platforms require consistent access to modern information and communications technology for their use (Walker, Hefner, Fareed, Huerta & McAlearney, 2020). As such, an element of social inequality is created since digital resources for learning cannot be distributed evenly to all learners. Regional and demographic differences have a direct effect on learning due to the digital divide created through game-based language-learning applications (Chen, Liu & Huang, 2019). Walker et al. (2020) explain that game-based learning applications may contribute to the expansion of the digital divide.
Game-based learning is centred on key features ranging from learning in varying and attractive scenarios, overcoming various problems to creating a positive and interesting environment (Govender & Arnedo-Moreno, 2021). Thus, the development of efficient and effective digital learning platforms requires considerable time and financial investment. Digital gaming applications require the intake of a collection of articles, videos and traditional classroom concepts and merging all the relevant factors with gaming principles. According to Govender and Arnedo-Moreno (2021), digital game-based language learning involves the use of feedback, themes and points that boost vocabulary acquisition and retention for learners. As a result, formulators encounter deficiencies in efficacy patterns due to the large amounts of information received and utilised in the development stages, calling for the use of error detection that slows down and creates a more tedious game creation (Govender & Arnedo-Moreno, 2021).
Application of Tangible and Non-Tangible User Interface Activities in SLA
A tangible user interface (TUI) is a digital user interface whereby an individual interacts directly with the physical environment and physical objects. According to Bong, Chen and Bergland (2018), TUIs play a major role in providing both physical representations and controls necessary for the interaction of digital information. On the flip side, non-tangible user interaction does not include a physical presence, and the user cannot physically touch and interact directly with the software application. Suhardi and Rizkavirwan (2021) explain that non-tangible elements of interaction are commonly utilised in creating a virtual application with the intention to provide a response without physical contact.
TUIs allow the user to manipulate physical objects, enhance learning initiatives as they promote active learning, student engagement, multisensory and collaborative interaction when used alongside traditional classroom teaching (De Raffaele, Smith, Gemikonakli & Nygaard, 2017). TUIs have attracted widespread interest but have not yet been implemented widely for learning due to a gap in research and knowledge (De Raffaele et al., 2017). Theoretical perspective points towards the beneficial nature of merging physical interaction with learning as a means of creating deeper learning that students can use to supplement classroom learning. According to Jafri, Aljuhani and Ali (2017), the learning process is improved through the spatial awareness that TUIs create for concepts and subconcepts. Spatial awareness is critical for L2 adult learning as it provides the cognitive triggers that enhance SLA (Korman, Weiss, Hochhauser & Kizony, 2019). Jafri et al. (2017) point out that TUIs reinforce the elements of spatial awareness and shape the perception necessary for language learning.
The EULALIA initiative, founded in 2019, integrates elements of TUIs as a means to create and improve international language learning for adults. This initiative merges the concepts of mobile and game-based learning with TUIs as part of a methodology which in turn promotes the development of observable output. The outputs include the development of TUIs and mobile-based learning for use in SLA production of authoring tools for previously developed interfaces, creation of hybrid games and applications for SLA, creation of a multi-linguistic library of applications, and promoting creativity and innovation in the realm of the game and mobile-based language learning. However, the app provided in this study did not use any TUI.
Research Questions
The following were the research questions for this study to understand the L2 learners’ attitudes towards game-based learning, to explore if games can facilitate SLA for adults and enhance the users’ knowledge of the L2 culture:
- What is the effect of the game and mobile-based applications for L2 adult learners?
- How do digital tools enhance L2 teaching?
- What effect does game-based language learning have on the evolution of digital skills?