Table 1 depicts the sample characteristics of the women who experienced pregnancy loss in their last pregnancy through abortion or miscarriage as per various socio-demographic characteristics. Of them, more than one-third were between 25–29 years. Further, we observed a higher number of pregnancy losses in currently married, Hindu women, living in urban areas, belong to SC/ST social castes, higher years of education, and belonging to middle wealth index category, with no further desire to have children, having moderate exposure to mass media, and living in south-west region of the country.
Table 1
Sample characteristics of gestational pregnancy loss among women aged 15–49 by selected socio-demographic characteristics
Variables | Total Pregnancy | Abortion | | Miscarriage | |
1st trimester | 2nd and above trimester | P-Value | 1st trimester | 2nd and above trimester | P-Value |
| n (%) | n (%) | n (%) | | n (%) | n (%) | |
Age Group | | | | | | | |
15–19 | 9640 (4.3) | 142 (89.9) | 16 (10.1) | 0.001 | 434 (79.6) | 111 (20.4) | 0.591 |
20–24 | 65380 (29.2) | 940 (86.7) | 144 (13.3) | 2087 (79.7) | 530 (20.3) |
25–29 | 78550 (35.0) | 1699 (91.1) | 166 (8.9) | 2413 (80.1) | 598 (19.9) |
30–34 | 43807 (19.5) | 1431 (90.9) | 143 (9.1) | 1663 (81.3) | 383 (18.7) |
35–39 | 19063 (8.5) | 874 (91.8) | 78 (8.2) | 848 (80.7) | 203 (19.3) |
40–44 | 5944 (2.7) | 302 (88) | 41 (12) | 336 (79.8) | 85 (20.2) |
45–49 | 1877 (0.8) | 78 (87.6) | 11 (12.4) | 94 (74.6) | 32 (25.4) |
Marital Status | | | | | | | |
Not in Union | 4079 (1.8) | 203 (86.8) | 31 (13.2) | 0.078 | 140 (76.9) | 42 (23.1) | 0.260 |
Currently married | 220182 (98.2) | 5263 (90.3) | 568 (9.7) | 7735 (80.3) | 1900 (19.7) |
Religion | | | | | | | |
Hindu | 162507 (72.5) | 4134 (89.6) | 480 (10.4) | 0.040 | 5766 (79.9) | 1450 (20.1) | 0.053 |
Muslim | 34363 (15.3) | 841 (91.4) | 79 (8.6) | 1295 (82.4) | 277 (17.6) |
Others | 27391 (12.2) | 491 (92.5) | 40 (7.5) | 814 (79.1) | 215 (20.9) |
Place of Residence | | | | | | | |
Urban | 57471 (25.6) | 1892 (90.9) | 190 (9.1) | 0.157 | 2533 (84) | 484 (16) | 0.000 |
Rural | 166790 (74.4) | 3574 (89.7) | 409 (10.3) | 5342 (78.6) | 1458 (21.4) |
Caste | | | | | | | |
SC/ST | 85201 (38) | 1599 (89.8) | 182 (10.2) | 0.146 | 2656 (78) | 749 (22) | 0.000 |
OBC | 86816 (38.7) | 2169 (89.5) | 254 (10.5) | 3141 (81) | 735 (19) |
Other | 52244 (23.3) | 1698 (91.2) | 163 (8.8) | 2078 (81.9) | 458 (18.1) |
Education in years | | | | | | | |
<=10years | 175420 (78.2) | 4080 (89.7) | 467 (10.3) | 0.075 | 5923 (78.8) | 1595 (21.2) | 0.000 |
>10years | 48841 (21.8) | 1386 (91.3) | 132 (8.7) | 1952 (84.9) | 347 (15.1) |
Wealth Index | | | | | | | |
Poorest | 53180 (23.7) | 788 (89.2) | 95 (10.8) | 0.296 | 1381 (74.2) | 479 (25.8) | 0.000 |
Poorer | 51038 (22.8) | 1157 (88.9) | 145 (11.1) | 1714 (78.8) | 462 (21.2) |
Middle | 45373 (20.2) | 1280 (90.8) | 129 (9.2) | 1645 (79.4) | 426 (20.6) |
Richer | 39624 (17.7) | 1185 (90.9) | 119 (9.1) | 1605 (84.3) | 299 (15.7) |
Richest | 35046 (15.6) | 1056 (90.5) | 111 (9.5) | 1530 (84.7) | 276 (15.3) |
Desire of Children | | | | | | | |
Yes | 87424 (39.1) | 1576 (85.6) | 265 (14.4) | 0.000 | 4741 (79.3) | 1237 (20.7) | 0.006 |
Undecided or No-more | 136404 (60.9) | 3777 (92.2) | 321 (7.8) | 3112 (81.6) | 703 (18.4) |
Mass Media | | | | | | | |
Low | 137814 (61.5) | 2894 (89.2) | 350 (10.8) | 0.028 | 4353 (78.3) | 1207 (21.7) | 0.000 |
Moderate | 61956 (27.6) | 1821 (91.5) | 170 (8.5) | 2481 (82.6) | 522 (17.4) |
High | 24491 (10.9) | 751 (90.5) | 79 (9.5) | 1041 (83) | 213 (17) |
Region | | | | | | | |
East | 45570 (20.3) | 986 (91.2) | 95 (8.8) | 0.000 | 1478 (78.5) | 404 (21.5) | 0.000 |
West | 16156 (7.2) | 309 (89) | 38 (11) | 439 (76.1) | 138 (23.9) |
North | 42323 (18.9) | 795 (88.2) | 106 (11.8) | 1692 (81.2) | 391 (18.8) |
South | 23411 (10.4) | 415 (76.6) | 127 (23.4) | 490 (76.2) | 153 (23.8) |
North east | 61702 (27.5) | 1765 (91.6) | 161 (8.4) | 2614 (81.8) | 580 (18.2) |
South west | 35099 (15.7) | 1196 (94.3) | 72 (5.7) | 1162 (80.8) | 276 (19.2) |
Total | 2,24,261 | 5466(90.1) | 599 (9.9) | | 7875 (80.2) | 1942 (19.8) | |
Most of the women reported abortion (n = 5466) and miscarriages (n = 7875) in their 1st trimester. The 1st trimester abortions and miscarriages were higher between 30–39 years’ age group, among women who were currently married, others and Muslim women, living in urban areas, with more years of education, belonging to SC/ST and other castes, richer or richest wealth quintile, with undecided or no future desire for children, moderate to high mass media exposure, and living in south west and North-east parts of the country. However, 2nd trimester abortions and miscarriages were common between 20–24 and 45–49 years, not-in-union women, living in rural areas, having OBC or SC/ST caste, with less years of education, poorer or richest wealth quintile, having a desire for more children, low mass-media exposure, and living in south and Western parts of the country.
The prevalence of abortion and miscarriage in the first and second trimesters of pregnancy, as well as total pregnancy, is shown in Table 2. The overall prevalence of abortions and Miscarriage in India is estimated to be 2.8 (2.7-3.0), and 4.2 (4.1–4.4). The prevalence of abortions and miscarriages were highest between 40–44 years, with a 6.3% and 7.4% incidence. Women who were not in a union reported a higher prevalence of pregnancy loss. Abortions were higher in 1st trimester among women who were not in union, while miscarriages were higher in married women in their 1st trimester. Higher prevalence of abortion was observed in Muslim women, living in urban areas, belong to other caste of India, with a greater number of years in education, high exposure to mass media, not having further desire to have children, and living in the South-West regions of the country. The prevalence of Miscarriage were higher in all these socio-demographic variables except where the women had desire for more children and among those who were living in the North-East regions of the country. Figure 2 depicts the geographical pattern of abortion prevalence in India's 640 districts. Dhemaji district in Assam reported highest (15%) prevalence of abortions, followed by 4 districts from Manipur (Bishnupur, Imphal East, Thoubal and Imphal West), and 4 districts from Uttar Pradesh (Gautam Buddha Nagar, Mahamaya Nagar, Aligarh and Farrukhabad) where the prevalence ranges between 8.5–15%. Other 75 districts reported prevalence between 4.0-8.4%. Abortion in the first trimester was high in 31 districts located in the North eastern and northern states of India, whereas abortion in 2nd trimester was high in 17 districts located in the southern and eastern states of India.
Table 2
Prevalence of abortion and miscarriage within and after first trimester among reproductive women for their last pregnancy
Variables | Abortion | Miscarriage |
Total Pregnancy | 1st trimester | 2nd and above trimester | Total | 1st trimester | 2nd and above trimester |
Total | 2.8 [2.7 3.0] | 14.7 [14.1 15.3] | 0.4 [0.3 0.4] | 4.2 [4.1 4.4] | 19.5 [18.9 20.1] | 1.1 [1.0 1.1] |
Age Group |
15–19 | 1.6 [1.2, 2.0] | 7.8 [5.8, 9.7] | 0.2 [0.1, 0.4] | 5.5 [4.9, 6.1] | 23.0 [20.5, 25.5] | 1.5 [1.1, 1.9] |
20–24 | 1.8 [1.6 ,2.0] | 12.3 [11.1, 13.4] | 0.3 [0.3, 0.4] | 4.0 [3.8, 4.2] | 25.1 [23.7, 26.4] | 1.0 [0.9, 1.1] |
25–29 | 2.5 [2.3,,2.7] | 14.2 [13.2,15.2] | 0.3 [0.2, 0.4] | 3.6 [3.4, 3.8] | 18.0 [17.0, 19.0] | 0.9 [0.7, 1.0] |
30–34 | 4.0 [3.6 ,4.3] | 16.5 [15.0, 18.0] | 0.4 [0.3, 0.5] | 4.6 [4.3, 4.9] | 17.2 [15.9, 18.4] | 1.0 [0.9, 1.2] |
35–39 | 5.6 [5.0, 6.1] | 19.5 [17.7, 21.4] | 0.7 [0.5, 0.9] | 5.5 [5.0, 5.9] | 16.9 [15.4, 18.5] | 1.5 [1.2, 1.7] |
40–44 | 6.3 [5.4, 7.3] | 18.5 [15.6, 21.3] | 1.1 [0.7, 1.5] | 7.4 [6.4, 8.4] | 18.3 [15.8, 20.9] | 2.7 [1.8, 3.6] |
45–49 | 4.9 [3.6, 6.2] | 12.5 [9.0, 16.0] | 1.1 [0.3, 1.9] | 6.4 [5.0 ,7.9] | 13.0 [9.7, 16.3] | 3.2 [1.7, 4.7] |
Marital Status |
Not in Union | 6.0 [4.7 ,7.3] | 20.2 [15.8, 24.5] | 1.4 [0.6, 2.1] | 4.8 [3.6, 5.9] | 12.9 [9.7, 16.1] | 2.1 [1.0, 3.2] |
Currently married | 2.8 [2.7 ,2.9] | 14.6 [14.0, 15.2] | 0.4 [0.3, 0.4] | 4.2 [4.1, 4.4] | 19.6 [19, 20.2] | 1.0 [1.0, 1.1] |
Religion |
Hindu | 2.8 [2.7, 3] | 14.6 [14.0, 15.3] | 0.4 [0.3, 0.4] | 4.2 [4.1, 4.4] | 19.3 [18.6, 20] | 1.1 [1.0, 1.2] |
Muslim | 2.9 [2.6, 3.3] | 15.6 [13.9, 17.3] | 0.3 [0.2, 0.4] | 4.5 [4.2, 4.8] | 21.2 [19.7, 22.8] | 1.0 [0.9, 1.2] |
Others | 2.5 [2.0, 3.0] | 13.0 [10.6,15.5] | 0.3 [0.1, 0.6] | 3.5 [3.1, 4.0] | 16.4 [14.1, 18.8] | 0.9 [0.6, 1.1] |
Place of Residence |
urban | 3.9 [3.6 ,4.2] | 18.4 [17.1 ,19.8] | 0.5 [0.4, 0.6] | 4.8 [4.5, 5.1] | 20.9 [19.5, 22.2] | 1.0 [0.8, 1.2] |
rural | 2.4 [2.3, 2.5] | 12.8 [12.2 ,13.4] | 0.3 [0.3 ,0.4] | 4.0 [3.9, 4.1] | 18.8 [18.1, 19.4] | 1.1 [1.0, 1.2] |
Caste |
SC/ST | 2.4 [2.2 ,2.6] | 13.4 [12.3, 14.6] | 0.3 [0.3, 0.4] | 4.0 [3.8, 4.2] | 19.1 [18.1, 20.0] | 1.1 [1.0, 1.2] |
OBC | 2.7 [2.6, 2.9] | 13.8 [13, 14.6] | 0.4 [0.3, 0.5] | 4.2 [4.0, 4.4] | 19.4 [18.5, 20.3] | 1.0 [0.9, 1.1] |
Other | 3.5 [3.2 ,3.8] | 17.6 [16.2, 19.0] | 0.4 [0.3, 0.4] | 4.6 [4.3, 4.9] | 20.1 [18.8, 21.4] | 1.2 [1.0, 1.3] |
Education in years |
<=10years | 2.8 [2.6, 2.9] | 14.2 [13.6, 14.9] | 0.4 [0.3, 0.4] | 4.2 [4.0, 4.3] | 18.9 [18.2, 19.6] | 1.1 [1.0, 1.2] |
> 10years | 3.1 [2.9, 3.4] | 16.2 [14.8, 17.5] | 0.4 [0.3, 0.4] | 4.5 [4.2, 4.8] | 21.3 [20.0, 22.7] | 0.9 [0.7, 1.1] |
Wealth Index |
poorest | 1.8 [1.6, 2.0] | 10.1 [9.2, 11.1] | 0.3 [0.2, 0.3] | 3.6 [3.4, 3.9] | 17.1 [16.0, 18.1] | 1.2 [1.0, 1.3] |
Poorer | 2.6 [2.4, 2.8] | 13.9 [12.7, 15.1] | 0.4 [0.3, 0.4] | 4.2 [4.0, 4.5] | 20.2 [19.0, 21.4] | 1.1 [1.0, 1.3] |
Middle | 3.0 [2.8, 3.3] | 15.6 [14.3 ,17.0] | 0.4 [0.3, 0.5] | 4.1 [3.8, 4.4] | 18.7 [17.5, 20.0] | 1.1 [0.9 ,1.2] |
Richer | 3.4 [3.1 ,3.6] | 16.8 [15.4 ,18.2] | 0.4 [0.3, 0.5] | 4.4 [4.1, 4.7] | 20.9 [19.6, 22.3] | 0.8 [0.7, 0.9] |
Richest | 3.7 [3.4 ,4.1] | 17.1 [15.4 ,18.8] | 0.4 [0.3, 0.6] | 4.9 [4.5, 5.4] | 20.5 [18.8, 22.1] | 1.1 [0.8, 1.4] |
Desire of Children |
yes | 2.4 [2.2, 2.6] | 12.4 [11.4 ,13.3] | 0.5 [0.4, 0.6] | 6.9 [6.6 ,7.1] | 33.1 [31.9, 34.4] | 1.8 [1.6, 2.0] |
Undecided or No More | 3.1 [2.9, 3.2] | 15.8 [15.0 ,16.6] | 0.3 [0.3, 0.3] | 2.6 [2.5 ,2.7] | 11.7 [11.1, 12.3] | 0.6 [0.5, 0.7] |
Mass Media |
Low | 2.5 [2.4, 2.7] | 13.5 [12.8,14.3] | 0.3 [0.3, 0.4] | 4.0 [3.8, 4.1] | 18.8 [18.1, 19.6] | 1.1 [1.0, 1.1] |
Moderate | 3.3 [3.1, 3.6] | 16.6 [15.5, 17.8] | 0.4 [0.3, 0.4] | 4.7 [4.4, 4.9] | 20.8 [19.7, 21.9] | 1.1 [0.9, 1.2] |
High | 3.4 [3.0, 3.8] | 15.5 [13.6, 17.5] | 0.5 [0.4, 0.7] | 4.5 [4.0, 5.0] | 19.3 [17.3, 21.4] | 1.0 [0.8, 1.3] |
Region |
East | 2.8 [2.5, 3.0] | 15.6 [14.2, 17.0] | 0.2 [0.2, 0.3] | 3.9 [3.7, 4.2] | 18.1 [16.9, 19.4] | 1.1 [1.0, 1.3] |
West | 2.6 [2.2, 3.0] | 14.4 [12.1 ,16.8] | 0.3 [0.2, 0.5] | 3.7 [3.2, 4.2] | 16.4 [14.3, 18.6] | 1.2 [0.8, 1.6] |
North | 2.3 [2.0 ,2.6] | 11.4 [9.9 ,12.9] | 0.3 [0.2, 0.4] | 5.2 [4.8, 5.5] | 23.5 [21.8, 25.3] | 1.1 [0.9, 1.2] |
South | 2.4 [2.1 ,2.7] | 11.4 [10.0,12.8] | 0.7 [0.6, 0.9] | 2.8 [2.5, 3.2] | 14.0 [12.3, 15.7] | 0.8 [0.6, 0.9] |
North east | 3.4 [3.2, 3.6] | 16.4 [15.5 ,17.3] | 0.3 [0.3, 0.4] | 5.4 [5.2, 5.6] | 23.5 [22.6, 24.4] | 1.2 [1.1, 1.3] |
South west | 4.2 [3.8, 4.6] | 23.6 [21.6 ,25.6] | 0.3 [0.2, 0.4] | 3.8 [3.5 ,4.1] | 17.6 [16.1, 19.1] | 1.0 [0.8, 1.1] |
Whereas abortion in 2nd trimester was found to be high in 17 districts of India, and most of these districts belongs to southern and eastern states of India. Around 22 districts of India depicted the highest prevalence of miscarriage ranges between 8.5–11.5%, with the highest prevalence (11.5%) reported from the Jajapur district of Odisha. Miscarriage within first trimester of pregnancy were found to be high in 5 districts of India and were in the range of 9.9 to 19.5%. It is pertinent to mention that 293 districts were having miscarriage prevalence greater than the national prevalence in 1st trimester i.e., 19.5%. After the first trimester, the prevalence of miscarriage was highest in Janjgir–Champa district (4.0%) of Chattisgarh, followed by other 38 districts with the highest rate of miscarriage, while the next 172 districts had a prevalence of miscarriage bewteen 0.0 to 0.5%.
Certain Predictors of abortions and miscarriages emerged from results of the generalized linear model (Table 3). Overall, the chances of abortions increased with age and was highest between 40–44 years (OR:5.12,95% CI:4.11,6.36), in Hindu women, living in urban areas, and belonging to ‘Other’ social caste, richer wealth quintile, with > 10 years of education, and from the North-East region of the country. However, the predictors for 1st trimester abortions were age 35–39 years, currently married women, Hindu religion, urban residence, ‘other’ social caste, middle wealth quintile, no further desire of having children, moderate mass media exposure, and eastern region of India. On the other hand, predictors of abortion beyond 1st trimester included 45–49 years, not-in union, ‘other’ social caste, less years of education, richest wealth quintile, having a desire for more children in future, and south region of India. Likewise, the predictors for miscarriages were higher age (45–49 years), not-in-union, Hindu religion, urban areas, ‘other’ social caste, < 10 years of education, middle wealth quintiles, further desire of having children, and North East region of India. Further, the predictors of miscarriage in 1st trimester were 40–44 years, Hindu religion, urban residence, < 10 years of education, ‘other’ social caste, richer wealth quintile, further desire of having children, moderate media exposure, and North-east region of India. On the other hand, predictors for miscarriage beyond 1st trimester were higher age (45–49 years), not-in-union marriage status, Hindu religion, < 10 years of education, middle wealth quintile, and East region of India.
Table 3
Generalized linear model with a binomial distribution assumption and log link for binary outcome as Abortion and Miscarriage for India
Characteristics | Abortion | Miscarriage |
Total | 1st trimester | 2nd and above trimester | Total | 1st trimester | 2nd and above trimester |
Age Group |
15–19 | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. |
20–24 | 1.22* [1.00,1.48] | 1.77*** [1.46,2.16] | 1.41 [0.82,2.45] | 0.81*** [0.74,0.89] | 1.36*** [1.20,1.54] | 0.80* [0.65,0.98] |
25–29 | 1.78*** [1.47,2.15] | 2.08*** [1.71,2.53] | 1.66 [0.96,2.88] | 0.99 [0.91,1.09] | 1.41*** [1.25,1.60] | 1.05 [0.86,1.29] |
30–34 | 2.75*** [2.27,3.34] | 2.29*** [1.88,2.78] | 3.13*** [1.79,5.48] | 1.45*** [1.32,1.60] | 1.63*** [1.43,1.86] | 1.58*** [1.28,1.97] |
35–39 | 4.05*** [3.32,4.94] | 2.64*** [2.16,3.23] | 4.81*** [2.69,8.60] | 1.97*** [1.78,2.19] | 1.83*** [1.59,2.11] | 2.33*** [1.84,2.96] |
40–44 | 5.12*** [4.11,6.36] | 2.63*** [2.12,3.26] | 9.90*** [5.32,18.40] | 2.80*** [2.47,3.18] | 2.22*** [1.86,2.63] | 3.59*** [2.69,4.79] |
45–49 | 4.75*** [3.57,6.32] | 2.05*** [1.55,2.71] | 10.21*** [4.58,22.76] | 2.97*** [2.46,3.59] | 1.77*** [1.37,2.28] | 4.91*** [3.30,7.29] |
Marital Status |
Not in Union | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. |
Currently married | 0.89 [0.73,1.08] | 1.24* [1.02,1.51] | 0.41*** [0.26,0.66] | 0.70*** [0.60,0.82] | 0.93 [0.76,1.14] | 0.51*** [0.37,0.70] |
Religion |
Hindu | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. |
Muslim | 0.74*** [0.69,0.80] | 0.89*** [0.82,0.95] | 0.59*** [0.46,0.75] | 0.87*** [0.82,0.92] | 1.02 [0.94,1.10] | 0.75*** [0.65,0.86] |
Others | 0.40*** [0.36,0.45] | 0.53*** [0.48,0.59] | 0.41*** [0.28,0.61] | 0.74*** [0.69,0.80] | 0.88* [0.80,0.98] | 0.77** [0.64,0.92] |
Place of Residence |
Rural | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. |
Urban | 1.23*** [1.15,1.31] | 1.19*** [1.11,1.28] | 1.16 [0.95,1.42] | 1.20*** [1.14,1.27] | 1.18*** [1.10,1.26] | 1.09 [0.96,1.23] |
Caste |
SC/ST | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. |
OBC | 1.25*** [1.17,1.34] | 1.16*** [1.08,1.23] | 1.26* [1.03,1.55] | 1.07** [1.02,1.12] | 1.05 [0.98,1.12] | 1.02 [0.91,1.14] |
Others | 1.48*** [1.37,1.60] | 1.32*** [1.23,1.41] | 1.53*** [1.20,1.94] | 1.11*** [1.05,1.18] | 1.07 [0.99,1.15] | 1.13 [0.99,1.29] |
Education in years |
>10years | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. |
<=10 years | 1.13*** [1.05,1.22] | 0.96 [0.89,1.04] | 1.44** [1.13,1.82] | 1.18*** [1.12,1.26] | 1.06 [0.99,1.14] | 1.47*** [1.28,1.68] |
Wealth Index |
Poorest | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. |
Poorer | 1.69*** [1.55,1.85] | 1.43*** [1.31,1.56] | 1.71*** [1.30,2.25] | 1.30*** [1.22,1.38] | 1.25*** [1.15,1.36] | 1.11 [0.97,1.26] |
Middle | 2.14*** [1.95,2.35] | 1.69*** [1.54,1.84] | 1.71*** [1.28,2.30] | 1.41*** [1.32,1.51] | 1.26*** [1.15,1.37] | 1.20* [1.04,1.38] |
Richer | 2.17*** [1.96,2.40] | 1.66*** [1.50,1.83] | 1.71** [1.24,2.36] | 1.41*** [1.31,1.52] | 1.27*** [1.15,1.40] | 0.96 [0.81,1.14] |
Richest | 2.04*** [1.81,2.30] | 1.59*** [1.42,1.77] | 1.82** [1.26,2.63] | 1.34*** [1.23,1.46] | 1.16** [1.04,1.30] | 0.97 [0.79,1.18] |
Desire of Children |
Yes | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. |
Undecided or No More | 1.05 [0.99,1.12] | 1.22*** [1.15,1.29] | 0.53*** [0.44,0.63] | 0.32*** [0.31,0.33] | 0.25*** [0.23,0.26] | 0.27*** [0.24,0.30] |
Mass Media |
Low | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. |
Moderate | 1.20*** [1.12,1.28] | 1.13*** [1.07,1.20] | 0.95 [0.77,1.17] | 1.11*** [1.06,1.17] | 1.07* [1.01,1.15] | 1.07 [0.95,1.19] |
High | 1.13** [1.03,1.23] | 1.05 [0.96,1.13] | 0.99 [0.76,1.32] | 1.15*** [1.07,1.23] | 1.08 [0.99,1.18] | 1.12 [0.95,1.32] |
Region |
East | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. |
West | 0.67*** [0.59,0.76] | 0.71*** [0.63,0.81] | 0.99 [0.67,1.47] | 0.76*** [0.70,0.84] | 0.70*** [0.62,0.79] | 0.99 [0.82,1.22] |
North | 0.67*** [0.61,0.74] | 0.65*** [0.59,0.71] | 1.13 [0.84,1.52] | 1.07* [1.00,1.14] | 1.07 [0.98,1.17] | 1.14 [0.98,1.32] |
South | 0.73*** [0.65,0.81] | 0.69*** [0.62,0.77] | 2.50*** [1.87,3.33] | 0.57*** [0.52,0.62] | 0.50*** [0.44,0.56] | 0.79* [0.65,0.95] |
North east | 1.12** [1.03,1.21] | 1 [0.93,1.08] | 1.21 [0.93,1.57] | 1.17*** [1.10,1.23] | 1.12** [1.04,1.21] | 1.10 [0.97,1.25] |
South west | 1.58*** [1.44,1.73] | 1.52*** [1.39,1.65] | 1.14 [0.81,1.61] | 0.91* [0.85,0.99] | 0.87** [0.79,0.96] | 0.87 [0.72,1.04] |
* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001 |