Degradation of Wetlands and Livelihood Dependence on Lake Abaya-Chamo Wetland, Southern Ethiopia.

Back Abaya-Chamo and other wetlands of Ethiopia provide multiple ecosystem services, the wetlands are extremely affected by various anthropogenic factors. The unsustainable use of wetlands stems from the negligence of users about wetland degradation and limited policy attention by decision-makers. This study was aimed at analyzing the livelihood benets of Abaya-chamo lake-wetland and the driving forces of its degradation. Data were gathered using a questionnaire survey of 384 households (selected via systematic random sampling), focus group discussion, and interview and ﬁ eld observation. Percentage, regression, etc., was used for data analysis.

Wetlands undergone loss or degradation despite the multiple services they provide to people. 'Wetland loss' is de ned as the transformation of wetlands to non-wetlands due to the impact of natural and anthropogenic factors; whereas 'wetland degradation' is human actions-induced "impairment of wetland functions", which delivers goods and services (Moser et al., 1996). Wetland loss or degradation occurs due to natural and human factors. This factors lead to depletion of ecological values of services derived from wetlands, and the loss of livelihood sources of people nearby wetlands. Livelihood is described as a combination of social, human, physical, economic, and natural capital (Scoones, 2009). The use of wetlands for crop farming has increased in recent decades (Dixon and Wood, 2003), which is underlain by population growth, climate change, globalization (Van-Asselen et al., 2013), and changes in policy and governance structures (Davidson, 2014).
Several studies stress on the role of ecosystems (natural capital) to extend access to other capitals, resulting in poverty reduction and resilience to global climate change impact (Akwetaireho and Getzner, 2010;Fisher et al., 2014). Recent global ecological crises, such as climate change and ecosystem degradation, severely affect the livelihoods of ecosystem-dependent communities in sequential order, such as reduced agricultural production, squeezed livelihood options, increased poverty, and eroded adaptive capacities across various scales (Reed et al., 2013b). Even if livelihood diversi cation is commonly suggested as a viable option to those crises and uncertainties, it is also essential to assess the livelihood vulnerability within the broader perspective of ecosystem-based adaptation and sustainable livelihood planning (Gautam and Andersen, 2016). One important pre-requisite in ecosystembased livelihood development is to have a qualitative and quantitative understanding of the relationship of the livelihood system and ecosystem in a given social-ecological system (Gautam and Andersen, 2016).
Wetland loss/degradation has been associated with rapid population growth, overexploitation and unsustainable management practices, which adversely affect the livelihoods of local communities (Trinh et al., 2003). Wetlands are often perceived to have little or no value compared to other potential uses of land that enable to produce immediate economic bene ts. However, wetland ecosystems have been severely degraded since some recent decades-past due to its overwhelming exploitation (Davidson, 2014). The protection of the wetland reserves numerous valuable goods and services to local communities and, to people outside wetland areas (Egoh et al., 2012).
The deteriorating state of wetlands and consequent threats on sustainability of livelihoods remains a key concern to many governments, especially in developing countries. Increasing population and rural poverty have damaged wetland ecosystems (Rahman and Islam, 2005). Wetland ecosystems are important from a conservation and sustainable management viewpoint as they are rich in diversity of ora and fauna (CBD, 2015). Tangible and intangible diverse services and products of wetland functions such as fodder, shes, fuel-wood, non-timber forest products, ecotourism and ood control have been sources of income and livelihood means for humans. However, population growth and associated factors have depleted these resources and reduced the ow rates of the ecosystem services. The loss of wetland ecosystem services damages the health and well-being of individuals and communities and diminishes their  Davidson, 2014;CBD, 2015). Diverting water ow from tributaries, runoff from croplands and urban areas, the withdrawal of water from lakes, high evaporation, frequent siltation, pollution, etc., are speci c factors, which threaten the biodiversity and services of wetlands (Ayenew, 2004). However, all these factors could not be equally signi cant in degrading the functions and services of wetlands, and the lives of people whose livelihoods are linked to wetlands everywhere (MEA, 2005b).
The interlinkage between wetland ecosystems and livelihoods is hardly appreciated by policy makers despite the paramount importance of the diverse services wetland ecosystems render to people and nature (MEA, 2005a;CBD, 2015). The formulation of sound policy and management strategies on wetlands requires holistic understanding on how wetland ecosystem functions are affected by natural and anthropogenic factors, and how the degradation of wetland resources in uence livelihoods (Boyd, 2012;CBD, 2015). It is also vital to understand how people make decisions on resource exploitation and how sociocultural and policy factors affect those decisions (MEA, 2005b; Boyd, 2012).
Wetland ecosystems of Ethiopia have experienced severe degradation due to anthropological factors. The wetland ecosystems have been threatened due to shortage and expansion of cropland, overgrazing and shrinkage of grazing-land, open access, and overuse of ecosystem services, etc., underlain by rapid population growth. Due to changes in land use land cover, sloping areas faced raising erosion and depletion of nutrients required for vegetative growth. Increased erosion and the resulting sedimentation elsewhere can have a major impact on the lake hydrology (Feoli and Zerihun, 2000). Soil degradation, dwindling landholding-size plus its fragmentation, and increasing rainfall variability-induced decline agricultural productivity in the highlands of Ethiopia has resulted in the shift of farmers from the upland Gelaw, 2019). However, none of these studies have attempted to assess the current conditions and bene ts of Abaya-Chamo lake-wetland, and the extent and driving forces of degradation of the wetland ecosystem. Assessing the services derived from the lake-wetland, the sphere of degradation, and the direct and a root cause of degradation is useful to devise sound policy and sustainable management options about the lake-wetland resources (Boyd, 2012;CBD, 2015). This study was targeted to (1) the goods and services derived from Lake Abaya-Chamo lake-wetland by the local people; (2) analyze the impacts of selected household and livelihood-related variables on the wetland ecosystem (degradation); and, (3) examine the driving forces of the degradation of the lake-wetland resources.

Description of Study Area
Abaya-Chamo wetland is found in Southern Rift-Valley of Ethiopia. Abaya lake is located in the 5° 47 '19''N − 6° 45'11''N latitude and 37°18'55''E -38°75'5''E longitude; and, Chamo lake is located in 5°43'N -5° 59'N latitude and 37°32'E-37°45'E longitude (EMA, 1988). In Fig. 2.1, the light-blue shaded part is Abaya lake and the deep-blue one is Chamo lake. Abaya and Chamo have been interconnected in the past with water owing from Abaya into Chamo lake via Kulfo river, but the lakes were disconnected from This geomorphic feature of Lake Abaya-Chamo basin/wetland, being within the Ethiopian Rift Valley, is the combined effect of natural processes such as divergent tectonic movement (between the African Plate-westward and the Somalia Plate-eastward), faulting, volcanism, and alluvial and lacustrine deposition. The faulting/rifting, volcanic and deposition processes resulted in the formation of graben (depression), volcanic hills (islands) and shallowness of the lakes' (Abaya-Chamo) depth, respectively.
The western edges of Abaya and Chamo lakes are covered by alluvial and lacustrine deposits, and swamps. Rivers such as Bilate, Gelana, Gidabo and Hare ow into Abaya lake, and the Kulfo and Sille streams drain into Chamo lake. Fluvisols is the result of alluvial and lacustrine deposits, dominate Abaya-Chamo wetland and the adjacent low-lying areas (Engidawork, 2001;Gelaw, 2007). The fertile luvisols, having good agricultural potential, covered the eastern side of Chamo lake. The soils are intensively used for agricultural production (Kebede, 2012; Gelaw, 2019).
The extensive deforestation within and adjacent to the lake Abaya-Chamo wetland was for the expansion of croplands and settlement. Extensive area to the west of the lake Abaya-Chamo basin was cleared in the 1960s and 1970s for establishing large-scale mechanized farms (Gelaw, 2019). Agroforestry is the main activity in the alluvial plain of the western shores of the lakes, where it is practiced using rain-fed and irrigation. Fruits (e.g., banana, mango, avocado, papaya, tomato, ), cereals (e.g. maize), vegetables (e.g. cabbage, pepper,), tuber and root crops (casava, onion, carrot, etc.) and cotton are cultivated on the fertile soils adjacent to the wetland (Gelaw, 2007;Gelaw, 2019). Wetlands, forest, woodland and bushlands have changed to settlement and cropland (Kebede, 2012). Research Methods

Data Sources and Methods of Collection
Both primary and secondary data were used for the study. Primary data about human activities, ecosystem goods and services, livelihood conditions and challenges on Abaya-Chamo wetlands were collected through a questionnaire, Focus Group Discussions (FGD), Key Informant Interview (KII) and eld observations (Creswell, 2009

Sampling Techniques
Initially, six (6) sample villages (Kebeles) were identi ed using purposive sampling; that are, villages adjacent to Abaya-Chamo lake-wetland were selected. The sample size of households was determined because of inferences (at least at 95%) about the study population based on analysis of data acquired from sample households (Gujarati, 2004;Creswell, 2009). That is, the sample size was determined using the following procedure (Cochran, 1977): Where: 'n' is the desired sample size, 'Z' is the standard normal deviation at the desired con dence level of 95% (1.96), 'p' is the proportion of the target population that is estimated to affect or to be affected by the wetland (i.e. 50% or 0.5), 'q' = 1-p (1-0.5 = 0.5) and e = is the standard error (0.05). Finally, the target sample household heads were identi ed using a systematic random sampling, that is, starting randomly every k th (4th ) household head was taken until 384 were acquired.
Four groups (each group consisting of 8-10 individuals) were used for FGD. Members of the FGD were selected purposively; and, each group consisted of elders, development agents, women, youth, etc. Eight (8) key informants (4 members of Fishery Cooperatives, 2 experts in Natural Resource Protection and 2 local elders) were selected purposively upon their experience about lake Abaya-Chamo wetland.

Data Analysis
Data collected using questionnaire was entered into SPSS (version 20.0). The normality test was conducted using Kolmogorov-Sminov test to decide whether a parametric or non-parametric test should be used. Spearman's rank correlation was used to analyze the relationship between the dependent variable (wetland degradation) and other variables such as household size, age, period of wetland use, farm distance from the wetlands. Percentage, mean and Tropical Livestock Unit (TLU) were used for analysis. Multiple linear (binary logistic) regression model was applied to evaluate the impact of household-related independent variables on the dependent variable, 'wetland ecosystem' (about which data from respondents were gathered using binary response-options); that is, the linear regression model used is (Gujarati, 2004): Y = α + β 1 X 1 + β 2 X 2 + β 3 X 3 + β 4 X 4 + β 5 X 5 + β 6 X 6 + β 7 X 7 + β 8 X 8 + β 9 X 9 + β 10 X 10 + β 11 X 11 + β 12 X 12 + µ Where: Y = dependent variable (degradation/loss of wetlands), α = constant, X 1 -X 12 are independent variables; that is, X 1 = total income, and, X 2 tropical livestock unit (TLU), X 3 = farmland size, X 4 = distance of farm land, X 5 = household size, X 6 = land size, X 7 = age of the respondents, X 8 = farming experience, X 9 = off farm activities, X 10 = access to credits, X 11 = gender of the respondents and X 12 = marital status and µ = error term (residual). Values β 1 -β 12 are the parameters estimated (i.e. the respective coe cients of the independent variables X 1 -X 12 .

Results And Discussion
Livelihood Bene ts of Lake Abaya-Chamo Wetland Degradation or loss of Abaya-Chamo wetlands largely emanates from crop-farming induced run-on, sedimentation, and eutrophication problems resulting from the surrounding uplands, open-access and overuse of the wetland resources in peoples' dependence (partly or fully) on the wetlands for their livelihood needs, etc. The main livelihood bene ts (goods and services) obtained from Abaya-Chamo wetland ecosystem were organized upon evidence acquired from the perception and experiences of households, and through eld observation about the wetland ecosystem (Table 3.1).  Table 3.1 are based on multiple response-options) As it is displayed in Table 3.1, so many people harvest sh for food or cash (83.6%) from Abaya and Chamo lakes, use the wetland for grazing and generating fodder/grass for livestock or cash (81.3%) usually during dry conditions, exploit lakes' water for livestock and domestic use (59.1%) and generate timber from woodlands and patches of forests (e.g. Sokie tree) of wetlands for making traditional boats (used for shing by crew members) and rewood (33.3%). The mean annual sh catch (2013-2019) from Abaya and Chamo lakes by legal crew members is too small (31,791.2 quintal) from the existing high sh yield potential; of this, 73.3% (23,301.5 quintal) is from Chamo lake and 26.7% (9,918.2 quintal) is a catch by legal crew members of the west-south-west coast of Abaya lake (Table 3.3, Appendix). Even if Abaya lake has high supply of sh (e.g. tilapia, Nile-perch), its share (%) of annual sh catch is small; this is a result of the siltation induced high turbidity of the lake-water throughout the year (Teffera et al., 2017), which makes shing risky due to crocodile attack.
The Abaya-Chamo lake-wetland also provide supportive services to local people and people away from the wetland such as irrigation water (77.1%) and fertile land/soil for primary (crop) production (27.9%) ( Table 3.1); meaning, the lakes' water and the neutral to alkaline land (soil) in the western part of Abaya-Chamo wetland (Gelaw, 2007) is being used for the production of fruits (e.g. banana, mango, tomato, pepper), vegetables (e.g. cabbage, salad, etc.), tuber and root crops (e.g. onion, carrot), tobacco, etc., using water pump motor-based irrigation by farmers and small scale investors. The lake-wetland offers a supportive service since it has naturally (e.g. hippos, crocs, birds such as the pelican, ,) and managed (known as 'Arba-Minch Crocodile Ranch' at the southwestern tip of Abaya lake) habitats (51.6%) ( Table 3.1).
The Abaya-Chamo wetland also provides cultural services such as 'tourism and aesthetic values' (74.5%), and 'recreational (e.g. swimming) and ceremonial (e.g. weddings, parties) services' (47.9%) ( Table 3.1). The local people (especially the youth) frequently swim in Abaya and Chamo lakes, and the Arba-Minch (Forty-Springs) to cool their bodies and refresh their minds, where the weather is too hot, the mean annual temperature is 24 0 C and the daily maximum temperature during September -April exceeds 30 0 C (NMA, 2019). The coasts of the two lakes, and the Arba-Minch (Forty-Springs) frequently get crowded with participants of wedding ceremonies (during wedding periods in Ethiopia) and parties or special occasions in weekends. The Abaya-Chamo lake wetland is among some of the most preferred tourism destinations for domestic and foreign tourists in the areas surrounding the wetland and Arba-Minch town in Ethiopia. This is so because, it has various tourist attractions such as the numerous small islands, hippos, crocodiles, various species of birds, the 'Arba-Minch Crocodile Ranch,' the 'Arba-Minch' (which refers to the 'Forty-Springs' situated between Abaya and Chamo lakes, and from which name of Arba-Minch Town was coined and the town's potable water supply service is generated) and a beach locally known as Azo Gebeya ("crocodile market" -located in northeastern part of Chamo lake is not a site where crocs are exchanged, rather, where crowds of crocodiles are observed and visited). All these are valuable tourism-induced sources of earning to the government (via tourism and the export of skins of crocodiles), local retailers and tour-guides. Moreover, the two lakes and the associated swamps of Abaya-Chamo wetland, being surrounded by the western and eastern escarpments of the Ethiopian Rift-Valley, have maximized the natural beauty of the environment around the wetland.
Abaya-Chamo wetland is valuable in the regulation of local climate (72.1%) ( Table 3.1); the wetland, being located in semi-arid tropical environment, is useful in moderating the local climate; that is, where the lakes have a cooling effect during daytime in months of hot weather conditions due to sea breeze (i.e., a cool air blowing from Abaya and Chamo lakes to the surrounding landmass during daytime) resulting from the air pressure differences between land and sea (the lakes) locally. The lake-wetland also regulates air quality by storing the huge amount of dissolved CO 2 within its lakes and the surrounding swamps; this, in turn, implies that the study wetland controls the level of land surface temperature by reducing the amount of greenhouse gas emission to the atmosphere (Egoh et al., 2012;Clarkson et al., 2014). The Abaya-Chamo lake-wetland is also a key source of rainfall to the local people (farmers) as the lakes are conducive surfaces for evaporation to take-place, meaning, it facilitates the hydrological cycle, which is a supportive service for crop farming (MEA, 2005). Since the wetland is located in the semi-arid Ethiopian Rift-Valley depression, its rainfall supply is adversely in uenced by 'rain-shadow location' the leeward sides of the western escarpment (for moist winds from the west) and the eastern escarpment (for moist winds from the east) of the Rift-Valley. It is because of such topographic barriers that the Abaya-Chamo lake-wetland receives a mean total annual rainfall of about 870.9 mm only (NMA, 2019). The lake-wetland and its surrounding areas (western coasts) usually receive better rainfall amount when rainfall starts from Abaya and Chamo lakes, and the associated swamps.

Driving Forces (Causes) of the Degradation/Loss of Abaya-Chamo Wetland
The degradation/loss of Abaya-Chamo lake-wetland is the combined effect of various anthropogenic factors, which have originated from the heavy dependence of the local community on the goods and services of the wetland ecosystem. Results about the driving forces of degradation of Abaya-Chamo wetland are illustrated in Fig. 3.1.
The degradation of Abaya-Chamo wetland and its bene ts has been driven by crop-farming expansion (60.2%), use of the lakes' water for irrigation (65.6%), sedimentation (44%), overgrazing or frequent use of the wetland for livestock grazing (59.6%), invasion of the two lakes by exotic plant species (e.g. emboch) (50.8 %) and over shing (40.7 %) underlain by rapid population growth (53.1 %), open access (69.3 %) to and low protection (61.7 %) of the wetland resources ( Fig. 3.1). Farm expansion toward the wetland and marginal areas was induced by a shortage of farmland (Assefa and Bork, 2016) and overgrazing was due to shrinkage of grazing-land in the areas adjacent to the study site (Kebede, 2012;Assefa and Bork, 2016); that is why (from results of the regression analysis) landholding size (with beta coe cient of − 0.206 and sig value of 0.003) and livestock population/TLU (with beta coe cient of − 0.119 and sig value of 0.001) were found to have signi cant negative impacts on Abaya-Chamo 'wetland resources' at 99 % con dence level (see Table 3.2 below); i.e. where these factors contributed to the degradation of the wetland resources (Bakala et al., 2019). In fact, household size of the rural residents (with a coe cient of -0.014 and sig value of 0.000) also showed a signi cant adverse effect on the 'wetland ecosystem' (Table 3.2); that is, the tendency to generate more services from the lake-wetland and associated resources, and the likelihood of degrading the wetland is higher for households with smaller family size; this could be due to involvement of more members of HH with larger family size in other off-farm businesses (other than deriving products from the wetland) or their better success in agriculture production, etc. Informants and discussants of the FGD also con rmed that the expansion of farming (to the extent the wetland lost its buffer zone), intensive grazing and the frequent harvest of sh (by legal and illegal shermen) have resulted in the degradation of the Abaya-Chamo wetland.
The irrigation, of the tributaries of Abaya-Chamo wetland, is not a critical threat to the sustainability of the wetland. Irrigation, rather, has become a real challenge on the sustainability of the wetland and its associated resources roughly since the onset of the last decade (2011-2020) -a turning point for the beginning of extensive use of the salty-water of Abaya and Chamo lakes for irrigation-based cash crop production in the western coast of the wetland and the adjacent plains by the local farmers and smallscale investors in agriculture. It is conducted (as it was observed on-site) using largely motors that pump the lake-water through plastic pipes to the cultivated eld where cash crops such as banana, papaya, onion, tomato, pepper, cabbage, tobacco, spinach, lettuce, are grown.
Factors such as farm expansion, irrigation, sedimentation and overgrazing together with the depletion of vegetation cover in the uplands (escarpments of the Rift-Valley) have contributed to the degradation of Abaya-Chamo lake-wetland in at least ve ways: rst, the expansion of farming has resulted in the removal of natural vegetation (e.g. woodland, grassland, forest and bush) near the coasts of the lakes (which was used as a buffer zone of the lakes) and loss of its biodiversity. Second, the destruction of the natural vegetation adjacent to the lakes aggravated the magnitude of sedimentation and the entrance of chemical pollutants (e.g. nitrate, phosphate,) in to Abaya and Chamo lakes. Third, applying the lakes' salty-water for crop farming in coastal lands where evapotranspiration is high increases alkalinity (sodic toxicity) of the soil and chemical degradation of land near the lakes. Fourth, the chemical fertilizers and pesticides used for cash-crop farming by farmers and investors (plus the fertilizer used in the surrounding highlands) is aggravating the pollution of the lakes due to siltation by runoff from uplands. Fifth, actions speci ed in # 1-4 above have resulted in eutrophication, which is a dense growth of a unique/exotic plant, locally known as 'emboch,' in Abaya and Chamo lakes due to raising the concentration of nutrients (e.g. nitrate) in the lakes. This in turn deteriorates the biodiversity ( sh, plants and animals) and sustenance of the wetland ecology since the thick-leafed and deep green emboch-plant consume water at an alarming rate -where the resultants of the invasive plant become shrinkage of the lakes, dwindling supply of dissolved O 2 , decline storage of CO 2 , loss of aquatic biota, climate change and disruption of the overall ecological balance of the area around the lake-wetland (Zhang et al., 2007;Erwin, 2009;Swinton et al., 2007;Davidson, 2014;CBD, 2015).
Key informants and participants of the FGD stressed that the depth of Abaya and Chamo lakes is progressively becoming shallow due to increasing sedimentation in the oor of the lakes, which is loaded by runoff (from uplands) and tributaries of the lakes. In fact, anyone who has been observing lakes since ve to ten years-ago may think that the volume of the lakes is increasing over time; this is so because, the lakes have shown a certain extent of lateral spread since some years past. The increasing lateral extent of the lakes, rather, is the result of the displacement of water of the lakes in response to the increasing siltation in the lakes. The siltation induced lateral spread of the lakes, again, accelerates the evaporation rate of the lakes, the magnitude of water loss and degradation of the lake-wetland.
A key informant (development agent), age 37, stated that the degradation of Abaya-Chamo lake-wetland is annoyed due to the lack of clear regulations and legal frameworks on the exploitation and protection of resources of the lake-wetland, and the measures to be enforced on those who abuse the wetland resources (e.g. illegal shermen, farmers who encroach to the wetland), and limited commitment of concerned bodies in natural resource protection. The rapid population growth, as a root cause of wetland degradation (Fig. 3.1), is the combined effect of high natural increase locally and high magnitude of inmigration from Gamo-highlands and Wolyta areas due to push-factors at the origin such as population pressure, declined farm-size, severe soil erosion, and low yield, and pull-factors such as availability of fertile land, the gradual development of infrastructures, the provision of health services, and the progressive control of malaria and tsetse-y (a vector of livestock disease) in the lowland/tropical wetland and its surroundings by the government of Ethiopia (Gelaw, 2019).
In addition to 'household size,' 'landholding size' and 'livestock population', variables such as education (− 0.021), gender (− 0.050) and marital status (− 0.118) revealed signi cant negative impacts on Abaya-Chamo 'wetland ecosystem' at 99% con dence level where the sig values of the respective predictors were 0.005, 0.003 and 0.005 (Table 3.2 below). Meaning, the likelihood of generating products from and encroachment to the wetland resources, and the contribution to the degradation of the lake-wetland is higher for less educated (than more educated), male-headed (than female-headed ones) and married households than unmarried (single, divorced and widowed) ones. In contrast, predictors such as the age of the household head (0.010), crop production trend (0.164) and income from the wetland (0.044) revealed signi cant positive impacts on Abaya-Chamo 'wetland ecosystem/resources' where the sig. values of these predictors were 0.000, 0.005, and 0.005, respectively (Table 3.2). The impact of other household-related variables on the 'lake-wetland ecosystem' was not statistically signi cant (see Table 3.2).

Conclusion and Policy/Management Options
Abaya-Chamo lake-wetland supports the livelihood of people by providing multiple bene ts such as provisions (e.g. sh, lumber, rewood, water, fodder), supportive services for primary production (e.g. irrigation water, farmland, supply rainfall, balance hydrological cycle) and wildlife habitat, cultural services (e.g. recreation, tourism, aesthetic) and regulatory services (e.g. carbon sink, regulate air quality and climate). The lake-wetland is degraded due to farm expansion, sedimentation, use of lakes' water for irrigation, invasive plant species (e.g. emboch), resource overuse ('tragedy of the commons scenario'),, which were rooted by rapid population growth, open access to wetland resources, limited protection and lack of legal framework on the use and abuse of wetland resources. The lakes' salty-water based irrigation are expected to result in chemical land degradation to the extent of abandoning crop farming in the next few decades unless some actions are taken. The eutrophication problem of Abaya and Chamo lakes resulting from human encroachment-induced loss of the wetland's buffer zone, and increasing siltation and chemical pollution require urgent response from stakeholders. This is so because, the invasive emboch-plant leads to dwindling aquatic resources (e.g. sh, crocs), loss of economic and tour bene ts, and change in local climate, thereby dehydrating the lake-water, and depleting the dissolved O 2 and CO 2 storage capacity of the lakes rapidly.
To curb the problems of the lake-wetland, the government should: Location of Study Area. Note: The designations employed and the presentation of the material on this map do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of Research Square concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. This map has been provided by the authors.