DOI: https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-1600163/v1
In cycling, performance can change with the adaptation of the bicycle to the individual, as well as the physiological characteristics of the individual.
The aim of the present study was to determine the effects of exercise training and bike fitting on cycling performance in recreational cyclists.
A total of 16 recreational cyclists were included in the present study. Individuals were divided into 2 groups as intervention and control groups with a simple random method. To the intervention group, exercise training for 3 days a week for 8 weeks and bike fitting was applied with video analysis method. On the other hand, to the control group, only bike fitting was applied with video analysis method. Cycling performance was evaluated with Functional Threshold Power Test (FTP), Lactate Threshold Heart Rate (LTHR), 10 Mile Time Trial Test (10 Mile TT), and critical powertest. Evaluations were made twice, before and after the training.
After 8 weeks of training, significant differences were found in FTP (p = 0.008), LTHR (p = 0.044), 10 Mile TT (p = 0.038), and critical power (p = 0.008) tests in intervention group, and in FTP (p = 0.028) in control group. When the cycling performances of the groups were compared, only LTHR results were found to decrease in favor of intervention group (p = 0.017).
The exercise program developed for recreational cyclists and individual adaptations for bicycle ergonomics are important in terms of increasing cycling performance. We believe that strength training provided along with bike fittng in cyclists will be beneficial particularly in reducing fatigue.
Considering the current pandemic period, people's interest in health, outdoor sports and nature is increasing day by day. Based on this perspective, the interest in cycling, which is one of the physical activities performed outdoors, is significantly higher than in the past [1, 2]. Factors such as lack of knowledge in cycling like it is the case in all types of physical activity, choosing the wrong bike and material, not knowing the important basics of this sport well, and not being physically ready might cause non-traumatic injuries in cyclists as well as affect cycling performance [3, 4].
Performance in cyclists depends not only on the physical characteristics of the individual but also on the compliance of the bicycle to the individual [5]. The effect of increased muscle strength, which is one of the physical characteristics, on driving, duration, and performance was reported in previous studies. On the other hand, the science of cycling is constantly updated to determine the optimum bicycle compatibility criteria and develops in the relevant technological areas [6].
Recreational athletes mostly consist of individuals who do not have sufficient physical fitness, with no sufficient knowledge of the sport, and who participate in the sport more than a certain age. This causes performance losses, injuries, and ultimately the inability to continue physical activity. The purpose of the present study was to evaluate factors such as prevention of biomechanical errors, elimination of deficiencies of the musculoskeletal system, prevention of incomplete information and incorrect applicationsand adaptation of the bicycle to the individual, which are determined to protect public health and maintain physical activity.
In endurance sports such as cycling and running, success depends not only on aerobic capacity but also on muscle strength and related sports performance [7]. For this reason, studies conducted to increase performance in cyclists focused on the effects of various aerobic and strength training exercises. Swart et al, reported that high-intensity aerobic exercise improved cycling performance [8]. Laursen et al, stated that the physiological adaptations of high-intensity intermittent exercise are more effective [9]. In the exercise training provided with a trainer, when the effects of training in different bicycle cadences, as well as the intensity, were evaluated, it was reported that low cadence training is more effective than high cadence [10]. It is already known that increasing the athlete’s cardiovascular endurance, as well as muscle strength and endurance, are effective on performance. It was reported in a study that investigated the effects of an 8-week strength training in cyclists that maximum strength training increased maximum aerobic strength and exhaustion time [11].) Also, lower extremity strength training and increased leg lean mass had positive effects on performance [12]. In addition, in another study in which individualized intermittent resistance exercise training and sprint training were compared, none of these exercise types was found to be superior to each other [13]. Unlike other sports, in cycling, performance can change with the adaptation of the bicycle to the individual, as well as the physiological characteristics of the individual. Previous studies show that bike fitting increases riding comfort and reduces injury, pain, and fatigue[1, 14]. The purpose of the present study was to determine the effects of bike fitting and exercise training applied on cycling performance to recreational cyclists.
Among the members of the Gaziantep Cycling Community, 16 recreational male cyclists who consented to participate in the study were included. Informed Consent Forms were signed by the volunteering participants. The age, body weight, height, and dominant side of the individuals were recorded. Inclusion criteria were being between 18–45 years of age, using a recreational bicycle for at least 1 year, not having a history of fracture, trauma, or surgery in the last 6 months, not having any systemic or neurological problems, having a Body Mass Index (BMI) of 18.5–25 kg/m², and presence of a written health report stating “There is no harm in using a bicycle for the individual”. Ethical approval of the study was obtained from Hasan Kalyoncu University, Faculty of Health Sciences, Non-Interventional Research Ethics Committee (No: 2021/006). The study was registered at ClinicalTrials.gov (NCT04972305). Cyclists who were included in the study were divided into two groups by using the simple random method. Exercise training and bike fitting were applied to the intervention group (n = 9) and only bike fitting was applied to the control group (n = 7).
The evaluations were made twice as before and after the 8-week training. Functional Threshold Power Test (FTP) and Lactate threshold heart rate (LTHR) tests were applied on day one, and 10 Mile Time Trial Test (10 Mile TT) and critical power test were applied on day two. A recovery time of 20 minutes was provided between the tests performed on the same day. All evaluations were made by paying attention to this order.
Functional Threshold Strength Test (FTP) (Endurance); FTP is a performance test evaluating endurance An indoor bicycle ergometer (trainer) with a watt measurement (Elite - Rampa Interactive Trainer - Italy) was used in the test. The higher the gear and the faster pedaling, the higher the wattage. Gear selection and cadence are determined by the individual. The participants were asked to warm up on the trainer for 10 minutes with a maximum of 100 watts, and then pedal at the maximum intensity they could continue for 20 minutes. FTP value was calculated by taking the average watt value reached after 20 minutes and multiplying it by 0.95 (95%) [15].
Lactate Threshold Heart Rate (LTHR) (Fatigue) LTHR test evaluates fatigue. LTHR (heartbeats per minute) is the peak at which increased blood acidity occurs. Exceeding this threshold causes an eventual slowdown because of fatigue. The test was performed with a computer-assisted chest strap (Kalenji ZT26D - France) and trainer (Elite - Rampa Interactive Trainer - Italy). After 10 minutes of warming up on the trainer at a maximum intensity of 100 watts, the subjects were asked to drive with the highest sustained effort for 20 minutes. The average heart rate obtained during this period gave the LTHR value [16].
10 Mile Time Test (Speed) The cyclist is asked to complete the 10 miles on the trainer as soon as possible. Individuals were asked to complete a distance of 10 miles after warming up for 10 minutes at a maximum resistance of 100 watts in the trainer (Elite - Rampa Interactive Trainer - Italy). The completion time is recorded. Speed was calculated in kilometers per hour [17].
Critical Power Test (Power) It is a power test in which the maximum effort that can be sustained over a certain period is assessed. This test, which is also known as the 3-Minute Critical PowerTest, is a frequently used measurement for cyclists. The individual pedals for 10 minutes of warm-up and then 3 minutes at the maximum resistance he can reach on the indoor bike with watt metering (Elite - Rampa Interactive Trainer - Italy). This resistance is the maximum wattage that a person can produce. The higher the gear and the faster pedaling, the higher the wattage. Gear selection and cadence are determined by the individual. Critical power is the cyclist’s average wattage within the last 30 seconds [18].
The members of both groups continued community activities routinely 1 day a week on the tracks ranging from 50 to 70 km.
Exercise Training
Group exercise training was provided to the cyclists in the intervention group for 3 days/8 weeks. Exercise loading changed every 4 weeks. (Table 1).
| Exercises | 1.-4. Weeks | 4.-8. Weeks |
|---|---|---|
| Set x Reps | Set x Reps | |
| Dynamic Stretching | 3 x 30 s | 3 x 30 s |
| Prone Plank | 2 x 30 | 3 x 30 |
| Side Planks | 2 x 30 | 3 x 30 |
| Cross Arm Leg Raise | 2 x 10 | 3 x 15 |
| Supine Alternating Arm/Leg Raise | 2 x 10 | 3 x 15 |
| The Side Lying Clam Exercise | 2 x 10 (red theraband) | 3 x 15 (blue theraband) |
| Side Step | 2 x 10 | 3 x 15 |
| Leg Raise | 2 x 10 | 3 x 15 |
| Lunge Exercise | 2 x 10 | 2 x 15 |
| Side Lunge Exercise | 2 x 10 | 2 x 15 |
| Burpee | ---- | 2 x 10 |
| Squat | 2 x 10 | 2 x 15 |
| Straight Leg Raise | 2 x 10 | 3 x 15 |
| Leg Heel Raise | 2 x 10 | 3 x 15 |
| Resistance Dorsi Flexion | 2 x 10 (red theraband) | 2 x 15 (red theraband) |
| Resistance Plantar Flexion | 2 x 10 (red theraband) | 2 x 15 (red theraband) |
| Static Stretching | 3 x 30 s | 3 x 30 s |
| Abbreviations: Reps, Repitations; s, second | ||
Bike Fitting
The adaptation of the bikes to cyclists was carried out with the video analysis method by using the “Bike Fast Fit Elite” application. This application is used to adjust the bike to the most suitable size for the cyclist to increase comfort, efficiency, and reduce the possibility of injury. Information is obtained with the video analysis to determine the the bike adaptation to cyclist’s and cycling strategies. Optimal ranges for different types of bikes (road bikes, mountain bikes, hybrid bikes, etc.) and riding techniques were created with this application. During the evaluations, the cyclist’s bike is fixed on the trainer, and the participant’s age, weight, height, extremity lengths, type of bike, frame, and wheel dimensions are recorded in the system. Colored bands and markers (DOT) are attached to 8 reference joints in the sagittal plane. These points are the acromion, lateral epicondyle, ulna styloid process, trochanter major, lateral femoral epicondyle, lateral malleolus, calcaneus, and metatarsophalangeal joint. A 3.5 seconds video is captured by matching the bicycle with the visual bicycle template on the camera that is placed at a distance of 3 meter. Instant angular values are recorded on the video where the marked joints in the frontal and sagittal planes can be monitored. In this way, the usage errors of the cyclist and the necessary adjustments are determined by the application. The results aim at bike fitting and correcting the cyclist’s wrong riding habits if any.
Analyzes were made with the IBM SPSS package program (Version 23.0, IBM Corp, Armonk, USA). The conformity of the variables to the normal distribution was investigated visually (histogram and probability graphs) and with the Shapiro-Wilk Test. As descriptive statistics, mean and standard deviation were provided for continuous variables indicated in the measurements, and frequency and percentage values were provided for qualitative variables. Since the parametric test conditions were not meet, the Wilcoxon Test was used for ingroup comparisons and Mann Whitney U-Test was used for comparisons between groups. The statistical significance level was taken as 0.05.
A total of 16 male recreational cyclists who met the inclusion criteria were included in the study. The individuals in two groups were similar in terms of age, height, body weight, and BMI values (p > 0.05) (Table 2). In the comparison of the cycling performances of the groups before and after the training, there were significant changes in the FTP (p = 0.008), LTHR (p = 0.044), 10 Mile TT (p = 0.038), and critical power test (p = 0.008) in intervention group after the training, and there were significant changes only in FTP (p = 0.028) in control group (Table 3).In comparisons between groups,it was also found that the LTHR value of intervention group was lower than that of control group (p = 0.017), and there were no differences between the groups in FTP, 10 Mile TT, and critical power test (p = 0.266, p = 0.315, p = 0.185).
| Variables | Intervention Group (n = 9) x ± SD | Control Group (n = 7) x ± SD | z | p |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Age (years) | 33,11 ± 3,72 | 32,57 ± 4,27 | -0,321 | 0,748 |
| Height (cm) | 179,11 ± 5,96 | 177,42 ± 8,40 | -0,742 | 0,458 |
| Weight (kg) | 79,44 ± 4,12 | 76,85 ± 10,47 | -0,371 | 0,710 |
| BMI (kg/m2) | 24,78 ± 1,29 | 24,92 ± 1,24 | -0,794 | 0,427 |
| (Mann Whitney-U, p < 0,05) | ||||
| Abbreviations: BMI, Body Mass Inde;, SD, Standard Deviation; cm, centimeters; kg, kilograms; m, meters | ||||
| Variables | Pre-training x ±SD | Post-training x ± SD | z | p | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| FTP (watt) | İntervention Group (n = 9) | 142,63 ± 17,08 | 160,77 ± 12,14 | -2.666 | 0,008 |
| Control Group (n = 7) | 147,62 ± 10,41 | 156,14 ± 8,70 | -2.197 | 0,028 | |
| LTHR (beats/min) | İntervention Group (n = 9) | 149,11 ± 8,97 | 144,88 ± 8,85δ | -2.018 | 0,044 |
| Control Group (n = 7) | 154,85 ± 6,06 | 153,42 ± 4,54 | -0.593 | 0,553 | |
| 10 Mile TT (km/h) | İntervention Group (n = 9) | 18,65 ± 6,07 | 21,50 ± 7,20 | -2.073 | 0,038 |
| Control Group (n = 7) | 17,40 ± 3,93 | 18,0 ± 2,61 | -0.593 | 0,553 | |
| Critical Power Test (watt) | İntervention Group (n = 9) | 182,11 ± 23,41 | 203,88 ± 22,62 | -2.666 | 0,008 |
| Control Group (n = 7) | 181,14 ± 15,29 | 189,71 ± 15,06 | -1.609 | 0,108 | |
| Wilcoxon rank test. p < 0,05 | |||||
| Mann whitney u test δ Intervention Group < Control Group LTHR | |||||
| Abbreviations: SS, Standard Deviation; FTP, Functional threshold power test; LTHR, Lactate threshold heart rate; 10 Mile TT, 10 Mile Time Trial Test; min, minute; h, hour | |||||
In the present study, which aimed to compare the effects of the exercise program planned for recreational cyclists and personalized bike fitting on cycling performance, it was found that exercise training provided along with bike fitting increased endurance, speed, and strength, and reduced fatigue. It was also found that cycling adaptations when combined with exercise training was more effective in reducing fatigue than cycling adaptations alone.
Vecchio et al. conducted a study on road cyclists and investigated the effects of strength training and aerobic cycling training on strength and aerobic performance. It was reported that aerobic cycling training provided along with strength training applied for 12 weeks increased endurance when compared to the group that underwent only aerobic cycling training [7]. The effects of strength and endurance training provided at different times and intensities on cycling performance parameters were investigated in the literature, and it was reported that strength and endurance training were effective in increasing performance [8, 9, 19]. In addition to studies reporting positive effects of strength training in cyclists, Psilander et al, reported in their study that strength training applied in addition to endurance training for 8 weeks was not superior to only endurance training in increasing muscle enzymes and proteins [20]. Similar to the study of Psilander, it was observed in this study that strength training applied along with bike fitting did not make an additional contribution to endurance when compared to bike fitting alone. We believe that the reason for the lack of increased endurance, which is one of the performance parameters, is because of the 8-week training period and the low-intensity strength training.
It was found in the present study that the effect of bike fitting applied to recreational cyclists on endurance was similar to the bike fitting applied with exercise training. Unlike many endurance sports, performance is closely related to factors such as cycling position, individual ability, and driving strategies, as well as physiological characteristics of the individual in cycling. We believe that a good driving position will reduce pain and fatigue increasing driving comfort, and thus, affecting sports performance.
The LTHR Test, which indicates aerobic threshold strength, was used to evaluate fatigue in our study. Strength training combined with bike bitting found to reduce fatigue compared to cycling adaptation alone, which shows that cyclists feel tired later as a result of strength training.
Melo et al, reported that heart rate changes decreased after training in healthy individuals who underwent eccentric strength training [21]. Rønnestad et al, reported that 13-week strength training that was applied in addition to routine training had positive effects on maximum oxygen consumption [22].
VO2 Max and Lactate Threshold are commonly used parameters to evaluate fatigue in performance sports studies. VO2 Max evaluation is made in computer-assisted laboratories equipped with gas analyzers [23]. Although the evaluation of lactate threshold with blood samples is a popular method, it is an invasive method [24]. Also, when compared to field tests, the disadvantages of these tests are that their accessibility and applicability are not easy enough. It was shown that the change in heart rate can predict the Lactate Threshold in professional cyclists [16]. The Lactate Threshold was used to evaluate fatigue in recreational cyclists in the study. It was found that the 8-week short-term results of the strength training for the lower extremity and core muscles were effective in reducing fatigue in cyclists. We believe that these results, which are similar to the literature data, occurred because of the increased muscle mass, aerobic capacity, and circulation with strength training [25, 26].
Another cycling performance indicator is speed tests. Although previous studies reporting the effects of exercise training on speed are limited in the literature, studies are reporting that body position, cyclingbiomechanics, and pedaling speed affect cycling performance. In a recent study, it was speculated that exercise training is effective on cycling performance parameters but may also reduce muscle fatigue tolerance because of exercise-induced muscle damage, which affects post-training performance parameters negatively [27]. It was reported in a review that examined the effect of strength exercises on cycling performance, strength training contributes to improving the economy of motion, delaying fatigue, improving anaerobic capacity, and increasing maximum speed [28]. In another study that investigated the effects of short sprint training, which is provided specifically for cycling, on performance, it was reported that only muscle strength increased with strength training, but sprint training increased the speed of cyclists. It was reported that faster neuromuscular adaptation with sprint training might have caused this [25]. In our study, although the speed increased in the group that underwent exercise training, its superiority could not be determined when compared to the group that underwent bike fitting alone. We believe that the short duration of exercise training and the fact that the training was not specific to sports might cause these results. Further studies investigating the effects of long-term exercise are needed in this respect.
Peveler et al, investigated the effects of different saddle heights on anaerobic power in cyclists and sedentary individuals and reported that the height of the saddle, which is adjusted so that the knee angle is at 25–35 degrees of flexion, is effective in increasing performance as well as preventing injuries [29]. Although there are studies in the literature reporting that the position of the cyclist on the bike affects muscle strength and the load on the hip joint [1, 2]. It was observed that cycling compliance did not have any effects on power in recreational cyclists. We believe that this result is caused by the fact that the ergonomic adjustments do not cause any changes in the physical structure of the muscle.
Although the power increased after 8 weeks of training in the exercise training group inpresent study, the effect of cycling adaptations on power was not found to be significant. We believe that this result is because no loading was made to the control group and the ergonomic adjustments did not cause any changes in the physical structure of the muscle. In their study, Bastiaans et al, reported that aerobic training provided instead of strength training increased power more [30]. More studies are needed to investigate the effects of different types of exercise training on anaerobic power.
Limitations
The wide age range of the individuals who were included in the study, the fact that the exercise habits of the individuals were not questioned, and the participation of only recreational male cyclists are the limitations of the study. In addition to the long-term effects of exercise, studies that will be planned to investigate the effects of different exercise types and intensity on performance are needed.
It was found in the present study that the exercise program developed for recreational cyclists and personalized adaptation to bicycle ergonomics increase cycling performance. We believe that bike fitting applied along with exercise training is effective in preventing fatigue in recreational cyclists.
Acknowledgement We would like to thank the individuals for the research work.
Funding The study was not funded by any external funding agency.
Compliance with ethical standards
Ethical approval Ethical approval of the study was obtained from Hasan Kalyoncu University, Faculty of Health Sciences, Non-Interventional Research Ethics Committee (No: 2021/006), in accordance with Declaration of Helsinki.
Informed consent Informed consent was obtained from all participants included in the study.
Conflict of interest The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest concerning this article.