Metagenomic investigation of soil microbial community and population diversity of the “Dhala Impact Crater” - The largest crater in India and Southeast Asia

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-1604651/v1

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Metagenomic investigation of soil microbial community and population diversity of the “Dhala Impact Crater” - The largest crater in India and Southeast Asia

https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-1604651/v1

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Dhala Impact Crater is located near Bhonti village in Pichhore block of Shivpuri district of Madhya Pradesh, India. It is the largest crater in India and between the Mediterranean and Southeast Asia. Until now, no comprehensive study was ever conducted to elucidate the microbial community composition and structure of the Dhala Impact Crater. In the current study, the microbial community structure associated with Dhala Impact Crater was investigated using illumina high-throughput metagenomic sequencing. Four samples were collected out of which two samples (DM1 and DM2) were collected from the top area of the crater and another two samples (DM3 and DM4) were collected from the bottom area of the crater. Taxonomic analysis has identified 42 microbial phyla as most abundant, while a combined analysis of taxonomic composition and phylogenetic relationships revealed an intriguing abundance of the Proteobacteria (about 80–90%) and Firmicutes (about 29%). At the order level of taxonomic classification, Pseudomandales (about 35–55%) and Clostridiales (about 30%) were found to be predominant. Our first report on unveiling the microbial diversity of the Dhala Impact Crater has identified consistent yet vastly diverse microbial communities.

Dhala Impact Crater

Crater biology

Microbial diversity

Microbial ecology

Soil metagenomics

When an “Impact event” occurs, it can reset the biological properties of the immediate area of the impact as a result of the intense heat (up to approximately 15000 K) and pressures (several hundred GPa) reached at the point of contact [1]. Thus among other extraterrestrial phenomena, impact events are the only ones that can directly disrupt a local ecosystem [2]. Therefore. the ecosystem of the impact craters is quite altered from its surroundings. Over 150 impact craters have been identified on our planet which contains significantly diverse biomes [3]. Following the impact, there will be a well-defined sequence of biological recovery within the crater [4], hence, it is of pivotal importance to elucidate the altered biology at the sites of impacts.

“The Dhala Crater” is located in the Shivpuri district of Madhya Pradesh, India (25º1705900 N and 78º803.100E) and it was previously known as “Mohar Cauldron” [5]. This crater was formed during the Paleoproterozoic era with an estimated present-day apparent diameter of about 2.96 km [6]. Previously, it was considered that the Dhala structure has formed by the collapse of the caldera [5]. However, succeeding findings have confirmed that the “The Dhala Crater” was the consequential result of a meteorite impact [7]. Meteorite impact results in the production of a fireball, blast waves, dust-loading of the atmosphere, and disrupt the environment [8]. These impacts are known to have caused changes in some microbial communities; for example, the turnover in calcareous nanoplankton flora across the Cretaceous–Palaeogene boundary [9,10].

We can explore the microbial diversity and the structure of microbial communities very efficiently by utilizing the molecular biology techniques such as “Metagenomics” [11]. Metagenomics enables the study of both culturable and unculturable microorganisms, by analyzing the environmental genomic data that provide information on the nature and the functionality of microbial communities [12]. Cultivation-independent metagenomic techniques have become a common approach to analyzing the soil microbial community [13, 14], and tremendous progress has been made regarding our know-how of the soil microbial population. Moreover, the native soil microbial communities largely encompassed several dominant species and some rare taxa [15]. It is possible that some novel microbial lineages with low abundance could be also present [16], and could play a crucial role in biogeochemical interactions [17]. Therefore, the deep metagenomic sequencing technique is capable to elucidate the vast information concealed inside the genomic data of low abundance microbial populations and subsequently, divulging their activities in soil.

However, our knowledge is very limited regarding the microbial population of the impact craters and most of the study concerns the lakes formed due to cratering [18]. More importantly, until now no detailed and comprehensive studies have been conducted to illustrate the microbial ecosystem of the Dhala Impact Crater. Microbes are the primary contributors to the transformation of organic carbon and soil nutrient cycling [19]. Hence, estimation of soil microbial population structure and density is of crucial significance to understanding the microbiological processes proceeding in the soil [20].

Therefore, in our current study, we report the first-ever findings of the microbial diversity of the largest impact crater in India- The Dhala Impact Crater. The target zone of the study is the central elevated area which is proof of complex impact craters. The objective of the study is to discover the microbial population and community structure of the Dhala Impact Crater and possibly, find out novel microbial species. Also, to explore the variation in soil microbial communities across different areas of crater.

Sampling site and sample collection

Four samples were collected from four different locations of the Dhala Impact Crater using scoopers and augur drillers. Samples were collected by removing the top soil (0 to 5 cm), gathering approximately 500 g of soil at a depth of 5 to 10 cm, and then immediately transferring the samples into sterile plastic bags that were kept on ice. Upon returning to the laboratory, the soil samples were immediately frozen in liquid nitrogen and stored at −80°C for subsequent molecular analysis.

DNA extraction and metagenomic sequencing

DNA for metagenomic analysis was extracted from the soil samples using the FastDNA Spin Kit (MP Biomedicals, Irvine, CA, USA), according to the manufacturer’s protocols. The concentration and quality of the extracted DNA were measured by utilizing the PicoGreen® dsDNA quantitation reagent by following the Picofluor™ Method (Turner Biosystems, Mary Ave Sunnyvale, CA, USA), according to the manufacturer’s protocols. And then the condition of the extracted DNA samples was evaluated with a gel electrophoresis method on 2% agarose gel. Metagenome amplicon generation was done by qPCR and library size check was done by Agilent Technologies 2100 Bioanalyzer using a DNA 1000 chip. Library quantity check was done by Illumina library (qPCR according to the Illumina qPCR Quantification Protocol Guide) and GS FLX library (Roche's Rapid library standard Quantification solution and calculator).

Data processing and taxonomic identification of the microbial population

The raw sequencing reads generated from the Illumina platform were adapter and quality trimmed using the tool UPARSE [21]. Samples were subjected to Pre-processing of reads, De-replication, Singleton removal, OTU Clustering, Chimera filtering. Each OTU’s Annotation and normalization at the species level using scientifically accepted tools and pipelines (Supplementary Dataset 1 and Supplementary Figure 2). The abundance for each sample is subjected to Cumulative Sum Scaling (CSS). For taxonomic annotation, the UPARSE command pipelines mentioned in the Supplementary Dataset 1 were used. In this case, as a reference “RDP Gold UCHIME reference dataset” and “RDP species level reference database” was used.

Statistical analysis

Read normalization and abundance estimation in each sample were performed using the method mentioned in Supplementary Dataset 1. We calculated the alpha diversity (diversity within samples) using the species count, Chao1, Shannon, Simpson, and Inverse Simpson diversity indices (Supplementary Figure 3). Statistical analyses of these non-parametric microbial diversity indicators were performed using IBM SPSS Statistics (Version 25) and Microsoft Office Excel 2016. The diversity indicators of the samples were compared via ANOVA using the Duncan Multiple Range Test (DMRT) at 5% (P ≤ 0.05) probability level.

The principal coordinate analysis (PCA) was performed by utilizing the “plotPCA” package of the Galaxy open-source platform (https://galaxyproject.org/) [22]. The Venn diagrams were prepared using the web program Venny 2.1 (http://bioinfogp.cnb.csic.es/tools/venny/index.html). The heatmap for significantly enriched microbial species in all four samples was drawn using the ggplot2 function in the “heatmap2” package of the Galaxy open-source platform (https://galaxyproject.org/) [22]. For visualizing the taxonomic composition and phylogenetic relationships among various microbial Genera in all four samples, we have used the VITCOMIC (VIsualization tool for Taxonomic COmpositions of MIcrobial Community) version. 2 [23].

Sampling site and sample collection

In order to detect the microbial diversity of the Dhala impact crater, we collected four samples and the details of the four samples (DM1, DM2, DM3, and DM4) are mentioned in the Supplementary Table 1. Among these four samples, DM1 (Coordinate: 25.29592761 N 78.1410341 E) and DM2 (Coordinate: 25.29502647 N 78.1407712 E) samples were collected from the top area (areas with no human or animals’ interference); while DM3 (Coordinate: 25.287780 N 78.141533 E) and DM4 (Coordinate: 25.298972 N 78.152861 E) samples were collected from the bottom area of the crater (areas with human or animals’ interference) (Supplementary Figure 1 and Supplementary Table 1). Therefore, the locations of the samples have major differences and we were able to characterize both common and differentially abundant microbial taxa in each samples.

Metagenomic extraction of DNA and microbial diversity analysis

Good quality DNA was obtained using the above mentioned DNA extraction procedure. Sequence datasets acquired after removal of low-quality sequences were trimmed, and only sequences of good quality were utilized for subsequent downstream analyses. A total of 23,68,428 high-quality sequences were obtained from all the four samples (Supplementary Table 1). Taxonomic assignment of these sequences to define operational taxonomic units (OTUs) was based on a similarity threshold of 97%. Good coverage (≥95%) indicated a high degree of sequence coverage (Supplementary Table 1). Highest OTUs (387) were found in the DM2 sample followed by DM3 sample (301) (Supplementary Table 1). The sequences were submitted to NCBI; the Accession Number and Bioproject details are shown in the Supplementary Table 1.

To evaluate community diversity characteristics of the microbial populations associated with the Dhala Impact Crater, we evaluated the alpha diversity within these four samples using non-parametric indicators (Shannon Index, Chao1 Index, Simpson Index, Inverse Simpson Index, and Species Count). Significant (P ≤ 0.05) differences were found in microbial community richness and evenness, keeping substantially higher diversity in the microbial niche of DM2 sample (Shannon Index = 4.257) followed by DM3 (Shannon Index = 4.246), DM4 (Shannon Index = 3.192), and DM1 (Shannon Index = 2.752) samples (Supplementary Figure 3A). Similar trend was also found in the case of the species dominance where highest diversity was found in the DM3 sample (Simpson Index = 0.96; Reverse Simpson Index = 25.17), however, total species richness was relatively higher in the DM1 and DM4 samples (Chao1 Index = 1946.5 and 1946.419, respectively) (Supplementary Figure 3A).

We consider that the sampling depth for our analysis was adequate to accurately characterize the microbial population since slope of the rarefaction curves became nearly asymptotic (Supplementary Figure 3B). Rarefaction curves of the number of observed species and sample size for each sample indicates that the recovered libraries from the DM2 and DM3 samples had greater species richness and abundance (Supplementary Figure 3B), being microbial communities more heterogeneous n these two samples compared to DM1 and DM4 samples. Overall all the non-parametric indicators of the alpha diversity analysis have indicated the presence of a significantly diverse microbial community in the Dhala Impact Crater.

Taxonomic analysis of the microbial community composition and structure

A total of 42 significantly abundant microbial phyla were detected in the Dhala Impact Crater samples out of which 26 most abundant phyla was common in all four samples that covered 61.9% of the total microbial diversity (Figure 1B). The principal coordinate analysis (PCA) conducted using the “plotPCA” package of the Galaxy open-source platform showed that microbial composition in the all four samples differed significantly but the DM2 and DM3 samples clustered together (Figure 1A), although they were collected from different elevation. Interestingly, DM1 and DM4 samples clustered separately but taxonomic analysis of these two samples have identified the presence of the relatively similar taxa in these two samples. PCA analysis of these four samples with other taxonomic categories also showed the similar trend (Figure 2A, 3A, 4A, and 6A). Therefore, the diversity of microbial population in the samples collected from the Dhala Impact Crater, was not directly dependent on the elevation of the sampling area. Significant diversity of the microbial populations was present in these samples but a direct correlation between the sample elevation and microbial diversity was not found.

Taxonomic analysis based on relative abundance revealed that out of the 26 commonly enriched phyla, Proteobacteria to be the most predominant phyla in the DM1 (90.09%) and DM4 (82.49%) samples (Figure 1C). On the contrary, Firmicutes were found to be most abundant in the case of the DM2 (28.39%) and DM3 (28.71%) followed by Planctomycetes (DM2 = 16.006%; DM3 = 17.20%) and Verrucomicrobia (DM2 = 8.05%; DM3 = 8.50%). Some phylum with low-abundance were uniquely present in some samples. For example, Poribacteria and Atribacteria were uniquely present in the DM3 and DM4 samples respectively (Supplementary Dataset 2).

Among the 45 most abundantly enriched microbial class (55.6% of the total identified microbial population) (Figure 2B), Gammaproteobacteria was most abundant in both DM1 (72.29%) and DM4 (73.16%) samples. In DM4 samples the Bacilli (11.95%) was the second most abundant class while in DM1 samples Betaproteobacteria (14.82%) holds the second position based on abundance (Figure 2C). However, DM2 and DM3 samples have shown significant difference compared to the other two samples. The class Clostridia have shown maximum abundance in the both DM2 (28.40%) and DM3 (28.67%) samples which was followed by Planctomycetia (DM2 = 14.65%; DM3 = 15.44%), Alphaproteobacteria (DM2 = 11.33%; DM3 = 11.42%), and Deltaproteobacteria (in DM2 = 9.55%) and Cytophagia (in DM3 = 10.50%) (Figure 2C). Interestingly, the class Lentisphaeria was uniquely present in the DM1 and DM2 samples while the class Endomicrobia was uniquely present in the DM3 and DM4 samples; however, these unique microbial classes have shown very low-abundance values (Supplementary Dataset 2).

Our taxonomic analysis has confirmed that 93.3% (total 28) microbial order were commonly present in these four samples (Figure 3B). More than half of the identified order (55.32%) belongs to the Pseudomandales in DM1 sample and in the DM4 samples Pseudomandales covered 35.94% which resulted it being the most abundant order in these two samples. Among other identified major taxa that was found in the two samples includes - Enterobacteriales (DM1 = 14.81%; DM4 = 26.11%), Burkholderiales (DM1 = 14.72%; DM4 = 5.74%), and Bacillales (DM1 = 5.01%; DM4 = 11.28%) (Figure 3B and Supplementary Dataset 2). On the contrary, Clostridiales (DM2 = 30.30%; DM3 = 30.53%) followed by Planctomycetales (DM2 = 15.65%; DM3 = 16.45%), and Cytophagales (DM2 = 8.16%; DM3 = 11.19%) – were the most abundantly present order in DM2 and DM3 samples (Figure 3B). Bdellovibrionales, Rhizobiales, Rhodospirillales, Sphingobacteriales, and Xanthomonadales have also showed relatively higher abundance in the case of the DM2 and DM3 samples (Supplementary Dataset 2). At the family level of taxonomic classification, a total of 26 OTUs were commonly enriched (Figure 4B). The family Pseudomonaceae in DM1 (44.37%) sample, and Enterobacteriace in DM4 (26.10%) samples were found to be most abundant while the family Clostridiaceae showed highest abundance in the case of the DM2 (27.92%) and DM3 (27.91%) samples (Figure 4C).

Figure 5 (A-D) is showing the combined representation of taxonomic composition and phylogenetic relationships among various genus identified in the four samples collected from the Dhala Impact Crater. Here, we have found that the Gammaproteobacteria and Betaproteobacteria were most abundant in the DM1 and DM4 samples; while Firmicutes followed by Alphaproteobacteria and Deltaproteobacteria were most abundant in the DM2 and DM4 samples. Therefore, this analysis confirmed that the phylum Proteobacteria and Firmicutes were ubiquitous and the most abundant microbial taxa across all the samples (Figure 5).

30 microbial species were whether commonly or uniquely enriched across all the samples (Figure 6B). A heatmap showing the relative abundance of these 30 microbial species were generated (Figure 6C). Pseudomonas sihuiensis, Ralstonia pickettii, Diplorickettsia massiliensis, Pseudomonas guguanensis, Acinetobacter baumannii, Enterobacter tabaci, and Pseudomonas stutzeri were the dominant species found in the DM1 and DM4 samples (Figure 6C). Bdellovibrio bacteriovorus, Sporocytophaga myxococcoides, Clostridium sensu stricto / C. swellfunianum, and Schlesneria paludicola were the most abundant microbial species found in the DM2 and DM3 samples (Figure 6C).

Interestingly, our analysis has found presence of the unclassified sequences, where 4.55% features were unknown (Supplementary Figure 4). This creates the possibility of identifying novel taxa from the soils of the Dhala Impact Crater. Overall, the assessment of taxonomic diversity analysis confirmed differences in the complexity of bacterial communities in these samples indicating the presence of a large microbial community in the Dhala Impact Crater.

Meteorite, asteroid and comet impact events are the extraterrestrial phenomenon that are related to the origin of life and extinction of biological organisms on Earth [24]. These impact events can cause possible environmental apprehensions that can permanently alter the target ecology [2]. The significance of understanding the correlation between impact processes and microbial ecology was nicely summarized by Cockell and colleagues [25]. They mentioned four major points to describe the importance of studying the impact crater biology – (1) these studies generate an elaborate information which explains how geological perturbations shaped the affected biosphere; (2) data from these studies help us to develop novel insights about the role of the astronomical events on our planet’s environment; (3) we can scientifically deduce that the simplistic view that impacts 'destroy life' by interpreting the subsequent evolution that occurs following the impact events; and (4) by revealing the link between microbial ecology and impact processes we could rationally recommend that impact events on the surfaces of rocky planets are a universal process since every solar system forming processes leaves some debris behind [25]. Thus, understanding their influence on planetary habitability and a planetary biota provides us with a universe-scale picture of how the cosmic environment shapes the conditions for life alongside our understanding of endogenous processes within planets (such as volcanism, plate tectonics etc.) that influence planetary habitability and life.

Therefore, in our present study we conducted a culture-independent metagenomic survey to gain novel insights about the structure and composition of indigenous microbial communities within the Dhala Impact Crater. The rapid development of automated, high-throughput sequencing methods including transcriptomics [26] and metagenomics [27] have made it possible to study the global biodiversity of the soil microbial community and improved our knowledge of the soil microbes and its potential significance [11].

Several studies have implemented metagenomics to unveil the microbial diversity in tropical soda lake ecosystems including Lake Nakuru and Lake Bogoriatoo in the African Rift Valley as well as from the Lonar Lake ecosystem, where they transform methane, sulfur, elemental nitrogen or nitrate in autotrophic and /or chemotrophic metabolism under aerobic as well as anaerobic conditions [18, 28–30]. An investigation that utilized 16S rRNA metagenomic sequencing to elucidate the microbial community of the Mukundpura meteorite impact crater have found the presence of Actinobacteria, Proteobacteria, and Acidobacteria in meteorite impacted soil [31]. Another study utilized high-throughput sequencing of the sediment and water samples collected from the “Lonar Lake” which is a tropical soda lake formed nearly 50,000 years ago due to a meteorite impact [32]. In this study Paul and colleagues reported that detailed 16S rRNA gene sequencing using high-throughput Ion torrent platform identified the prevalence of the phyla Gammaproteobacteria, Alphaproteobacteria, Actinobacteria, Firmicutes, and Candidate divisions TM7 and WS3a in both sediments and water samples [32]. Our present study also identified Proteobacteria, Firmicutes, Planctomycetes, Verrucomicrobia as dominant phyla in the four samples collected from the Dhala Impact Crater (Fig. 1C and Fig. 5A-D) which coincides with the findings of the previous reports.

There was substantial difference in the elevation of the four samples where DM1 and DM2 samples represented higher elevation and DM3 and DM4 samples represented the lower elevation (Supplementary Fig. 1 and Supplementary Table 1). Previous studies have shown that elevational gradients could significantly influence the soil microbial diversity [33], microbial community structure [34], and abundance [35]. However, in our study we have found that microbial diversity and abundance of the Dhala Impact Crater samples were elevation independent. Nevertheless, some microbes with low-abundance like Thermoplasmata and Lentisphaeria were uniquely present in the samples with high altitude (i.e. DM1 and DM2) and the order Endomicrobia were present only in the samples collected from the bottom area of the crater (i.e. DM3 and DM4) (Supplementary Table 1). Thermoplasmata is a large class Euryarchaeota that belongs to the domain Archaea consisting of thermoacidphiles (pH optima 0.7 to 3 and optimum temperatures above 50°C – based upon cultured specimens) which are aerobic or microaerophilic heterotrophs [36]. Singh and colleagues also found increased in Thermoplasmata towards upper elevations of the Mt. Fuji which was correlated with increasing prevalence of the thaumarchaeotal soil cluster [37]. Endomicrobia is a class-level lineage in the phylum Elusimicrobia are generally found in the nature as an intracellular symbionts of termite gut flagellates [38]. However, some member of Endomicrobia class like Endomicrobium proavitum Rsa215 could also be present in the soil as free-living organism with an unusual cell cycle that fixes nitrogen with a Group IV nitrogenase [39]. Therefore, our findings also support these previous reports.

Taxonomic comparisons of the four samples have showed the microbial population of the DM1 & DM4 and DM2 & DM3 were significantly distinct. It is possible that the microbes present in the Dhala Impact Crater samples, experienced different biogeochemical cycling patterns that could be related with the dissimilarities of the microbial communities [40,41].

In conclusion, from the findings our study, we have presented here the first study to integrate a uniform and comprehensive microbiological framework of the Dhala Impact Crater. In depth metagenomic sequencing using the high-throughput Illumina Mi-seq platform have revealed a divergent and distinctive landscape of microbial fauna in all the samples. However, elucidation of the detailed biogeochemical functions of these diverse microbial populations and specific functional characterization of the target microbial genes awaits further investigations.

Acknowledgements

The authors declare that no funds, grants, or other support were received during the preparation of this manuscript.

Financial Interest

The authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare they have no conflict of interest.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, data validation, and supervision of the study were performed by [Ashish Patel]. Material preparation, data collection and analysis were performed by [Margi Patel], [Shaikhul Islam] and [Sachin Baid]. The first draft of the manuscript was written by [Margi Patel] and [Shaikhul Islam] and all authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Data Availability

The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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SupplementaryDataset1.docx
List of the commands used for analyzing metagenomic data utilizing the UPARSE pipeline.
SupllementaryDataset2.xlsx
Relative abundances of the identified microbial taxa.
SupplementaryFigure1.jpg
Geographic distribution of the four sampling locations.
SupplementaryFigure2.jpg
Flowchart showing the metagomic analysis workflow (UPARSE)
SupplementaryFigure3.jpg
A. Within sample (Alpha) microbial richness and diversity indices. Non-parametric microbial diversity indicators like species count, Chao1, Shannon, Simpson, and Inverse Simpson diversity indices were plotted and comparison were made. Within each frame different letters indicate statistically significant difference between the parameters (DMRT, P ≤ 0.05); B. Rarefaction curves for the four samples (DM1, DM2, DM3, and DM4) collected from the Dhala Impact Crater.
SupplementaryFigure4.jpg
A. Pie chart showing the sequence breakdown data; B. Pie chart showing the taxonomic hits distribution; C. Bar plots showing the number of reads in four samples.
SupplementaryTable1.docx
Sample coordinates and sequence summary of the collected soil samples from the Dhala Impact Crater.

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Metagenomic investigation of soil microbial community and population diversity of the “Dhala Impact Crater” - The largest crater in India and Southeast Asia

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Introduction

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