Medicinal Plants Used for the Treatment of Poultry Diseases in Zimbabwe: A Systematic Review

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-1646051/v1

Download PDF

Systematic Review

Medicinal Plants Used for the Treatment of Poultry Diseases in Zimbabwe: A Systematic Review

https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-1646051/v1

This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License

Version 1

posted

You are reading this latest preprint version

Poultry farming represents an important sector for the livelihood of rural communities in Zimbabwe. Farmers raise poultry in order to meet demands on household food and as additional sources of income. However, the production of birds is hampered by a variety of diseases. The impact of diseases is severe for poor communities who have limited access to modern veterinary services and, therefore, rely on indigenous medicines for the treatment of livestock ailments. Here we review the medicinal plants that are used for the treatment of poultry diseases in Zimbabwe. A systematic web search and review was conducted on research literature relating to medicinal plants that are used for the treatment of poultry diseases in Zimbabwe. Data were collected from a total of 15 Zimbabwean studies meeting specific inclusion criteria. Data from published studies lacking information on study area, scientific names of plants and without information about plants that are used to treat poultry diseases were excluded. Relevant ethnoveterinary information was analysed and summarized in tables, bar graphs and pie charts. Fifty-three plants were used among the non-commercial poultry producers in Zimbabwe. Most of the plants used for treating poultry belonged to the Fabaceae family followed by Solanaceae. Cited in 14 studies, Aloe species were the most widely used plant. Leaves were the most widely used part of the plant for treatment. The most widely used method of preparing plant material for treatment was crushing. Geographical and cross-cultural linkage contributes to knowledge sharing. There is need to conduct more field surveys to document more plants used in different parts of the country. It would be useful to investigate the therapeutic effectiveness of the various plant materials under clearly defined experimental conditions. The ultimate aim would be to isolate and identify potentially useful compounds.

Animal Science

Botany

ethnoveterinary

herbal plants

medicinal plants

poultry health management

Zimbabwe

The term poultry describes domestic birds that are raised for their products including meat, eggs, and feathers and includes chickens, turkeys, guinea fowls, ducks and other species often considered game such as pigeons [1]. Chickens constitute about 90% of the poultry population and are, by far, the most important poultry species in all parts of the world [2]. The raising of poultry is increasing in importance globally, including in Sub-Saharan Africa [3]. The production of poultry offers potential economic and health benefits to economies of Sub-Saharan Africa and their populations including improved nutrition, incomes for poultry farmers; employment, reliable grain market for farmers and cheaper source of protein [4]. Although farmers may be aware of the need to keep their flocks in good health [5], conventional drugs or vaccines are either unavailable or too expensive. Inability to access conventional drugs or vaccines forces poor farmers to rely on herbal remedies. Conventional packages for treating poultry diseases are designed for the commercial sector and for up to thousands of birds whereas small-scale poultry farmers work with small flocks that have birds of mixed age groups. The flocks may be made up of different species [6]. Although rural farmers claim that ethno-veterinary practices are effective [5, 7], there is an urgent need for research to substantiate their assertions.

In Zimbabwe, medicinal plants and practices have always been part of the management of animal diseases and other health problems such as fractures [8]. Most rural societies [9] still rely herbal remedies to treat diseases affecting all livestock species. However, formal ethno-veterinary research is still an emerging field in the country with most studies to date focusing on documenting plants that are used in the management of various health problems of livestock [5, 8, 10, 11].

Medicinal plants can play a key role in the development and advancement of modern studies by serving as a starting point for the development of drugs. Although medicinal plants may be highly valued by a substantial section of the population destructive and illegal harvesting threaten the sustainability of their use. Lack of proper documentation of indigenous knowledge on medicinal plants has reduced broad research on indigenous information [12, 13], Increase of modern education has resulted in the younger generation to undervaluing the local indigenous knowledge on medicinal plants [12, 14]. The use of medicinal plants for the treatment of poultry diseases in Zimbabwe has been reported separately, the use of the medicinal plants and the diseases that the remedies are used to treat have not been reviewed. In this study, the objective was to review medicinal plants that are used for the management of poultry health in Zimbabwe, including the parts of the plant used, methods of preparing the remedies, and the methods of administration during use.

Of the articles that were reviewed, 60% dealt with the use of medicinal plants used for the treatment of different livestock species while 30% were concerned with the use of medicinal plants in the management of poultry health. The information gathered on herbal plants that are in the management of poultry diseases in Zimbabwe, parts of the plant used, methods used in preparing the medicines and the diseases or symptoms that are treated are summarized in Table 1.

Table 1

Medicinal plants used in the management of poultry health in Zimbabwe

Author(s)

Family

Species name

Vernacular name

Plant parts used

Method of preparation

Disease or symptom treated

[15]

Agavaceae

Agave sisalana

Naturalised, Perennial

Mukonje/ chikwengu

Leaves

Pound the plant and add to drinking water

Coccidiosis

Coughing

Flu-like symptoms

Newcastle disease

[15]

Amaranthaceae

Chenopodium ambrosioides

Naturalised, Perennial

Munhuwenhuwe

Whole plant

Place crushed plant material in fowl runs

Ectoparasite control

[10]

Amaryllidaceae

Allium cepa

Introduced, Perennial

Onion

Bulb

1. Place crushed bulb in drinking water

2. Crush bulb, ferment in water and sprinkle onto the birds and in the fowl run

Respiratory problems

Diarrhoea

Lice

[9, 10, 16]

Allium sativum

Introduced, Perennial

Garlic

Tuber

Crush bulb and put in drinking water.

Crush bulbs, ferment in water and sprinkle onto the birds and the fowl run

Respiratory problems

External parasites

Diarrhoea

[15]

Crinum macowanii

Introduced, Perennial

Dururu

Tuber

Suspend fresh tuber in drinking water

Helminthiasis

[17, 18]

Anacardiaceae

Lannea stuhlmannii

Native, Perennial

Musosoti

Bark

Crush bark, soak in clean water and administered orally

Coccidiosis,

prophylactic measure against poultry disease

[8, 19]

Apocyanaceae

Adenium multiflorum

Native, Perennial

Chisvosve

Sap

Sap from flower rubbed above animal’s eyelid

Eye problems

[15]

Catharanthus roseus

Naturalised, Perennial

Tsuramatongo

Roots

Pound the roots and mix with drinking water

Coccidiosis

[10]

Sarcostemma viminale

Native, Perennial

Chifure

Leaves

Crush and put in drinking water

Coccidiosis

Diarrhoea

[8, 15, 17]

Sarcostemma viminale

Native, Perennial

Rusungwe/ Nyakadombo

Stem

1. Plant material dried, ground to powder, mixed with water and the mixture offered to birds to drink

2.Crush the fresh plant and mix the paste with poultry feed

Gastrointestinal problems

Endoparasites

Lethargic birds

[7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23]

Asphodelaceae

1. Aloe vera Introduced, Perennial

2. Aloe spicata Introduced, Perennial

3. Aloe greatheadii Native, Perennial

4. Aloe chabaudii Native, Perennial

5. Aloe babarbadensis Introduced, Perennial

Aloe aborescens Native, Perennial

Gavakava

Leaves

1. Grind fresh leaves and add to drinking water

2. Dry leaves are crushed and powder applied on wounds

Coccidiosis

Fowl typhoid

Newcastle disease

Wounds

Worms

Diarrhoea

General weakness

Weight loss

Lethargic birds

Coughing

Ectoparasites

[8, 11]

Asteraceae

Venonia amygdalina

Native, Perennial

Muzhozho

Leaves

Add ground fresh leaves to drinking water

Worms

General weakness

Respiratory problems

[15]

Aspilia pluriseta

Native, Perennial

Mukushamvura/Mumharadzi/

Ruhwati

Whole plant

Char the plant and apply

the ashes on wounds

Wounds

[15]

Bidens pilosa

Naturalised, Annual

Guku/ tsine

Leaves

Crush the leaves and apply aqueous extracts to wounds

Wounds

[15]

Vernonia adoensis

Native, Perennial

Musikavakadzi

Leaves

Crush the leaves and apply aqueous extracts to wounds

Wounds

[8, 10, 17]

Chrysobalanaceae

Parinaria curatellifolia Native, Perennial

Muchakata

Bark

Animal made to drink bark powder and water mixture

Coccidiosis,

Fowl typhoid

Diarrhoea

[17]

Combretaceae

Combretum heroense

Native, Perennial

Mutechani/ murovamhuru

Coccidiosis

[8, 11]

Commelinaceae

Aneilema hockii

Native, Perennial

Rutapatsikidzi

Branches

Branches of plant herb, which attract fleas, are placed in fowl runs.

Fleas

[10]

Euphorbiaceae

Euphorbia matabelensis

Native, Perennial

Murimbo

Bark

Crush stem parts and place in drinking water

Respiratory problems

Diarrhoea

[15]

Fabaceae

Bobgunnia madagascariensis

Native, Perennial

Mucherekese

Pods

Grind the dried pods into a powder and suspend in drinking water

Coccidiosis

flu-like

symptoms

weight

loss, coughing,

Newcastle disease

[15]

Cassia abbreviata

Naturalised, Perennial

Muremberembe/ muvheneka

Bark

Grind the dried bark and suspend in drinking water

Lethargic birds

[15]

Dalbergia nitidula

Native, Perennial

Mudima/ murima

Bark

Dry the bark, grind into a powder and apply on wounds

Wounds

[10, 15]

Erythrina abyssinica

Native, Perennial

Mutiti

Bark

1. Crush fresh plant material and place in drinking water

2. Dry, grind and place suspend ground material in drinking water

Coccidiosis

Diarrhoea

wounds,

coughing, flu-like

symptoms, Newcastle

disease, blindness

[8, 15, 24]

Pterocarpus angolensis

Native, Perennial

Mubvamaropa

Sap

Bark

1. Sap from bark dropped in eyes

2. Pound the bark and apply the extract to wounds

Sore eyes

Wounds

[15]

Senna singueana

Native, Perennial

Munzungunzungu

Mudyanungu/Mukundanyoka

Leaves

Pound fresh leaves and suspend in water

Coccidiosis, New castle

disease, coughing,

flu-like symptoms

[8, 11, 15, 19]

Xeroderris stuhlmannii

Native, Perennial

Murumanyama

Bark

Animal made to drink crushed bark and water mixture

Diarrhoea

Coccidiosis

Lethargic birds

[15, 19]

Loganiaceae

Strychnos cocculoides

Native, Perennial

Mutamba/ muzhumwi

Fruit

Crush the unripe fruit and mix the contents with water and give the birds to drink

Coccidiosis, coughing,

Newcastle, fowlpox

[15]

Meliaceae

Khaya anthotheca

Native, Perennial

Muvava

Bark

Pound the bark and mix with drinking water

Lethargic birds

Fowl pox

[8]

Moraceae

Ficus burkei

Native, Perennial

Mushavhi

Root

Animal made to drink root powder and water mixture

Diarrhoea

[15]

Moringaceae

Moringa oleifera

Naturalised, Perennial

Muringa

Leaves

Crush the leaves and suspend in water

Coccidiosis

Coughing

[8, 9, 11, 15]

Musaceae

Musa sapientum

Introduced, Perennial

Mubhanana

Roots

Crush the roots and mix with Salt

Coccidiosis

[8, 17]

Myrothamnaceae

Myrothamnus flabellifoilius

Native, Perennial

Mufandichimuka

Root

Animal made to drink root powder and water mixture

Coccidiosis

Diarrhoea

[15, 24]

Olacaceae

Ximenia caffra

Native, Perennial

Munhengeni/Mutsvanzva/ Mutunguru

Leaves

Pound fresh leaves and extract sap

Wounds

Fowlpox

[9, 11]

Orchidaceae

Bulbophylum spp.

Native, Perennial

Batanai

Bark

Bark is tied around fracture as supporting pad.

Fractures

[15]

Tridactyle bicaudate

Native, Perennial

Paka

Leaves

Pound the plant and suspend the material in drinking water

Coccidiosis, Lethargy,

flu-like symptoms,

Newcastle disease

[15]

Passifloraceae

Passiflora edulis

Introduced, Perennial

Mugurandera

Leaves

Pound fresh leaves and suspend them in water.

Coccidiosis, coughing,

head wounds

[15]

Adenia gummifera

Native, Perennial

Muhore

Whole plant

Pound the plant and suspend in drinking water

Lethargic birds,

Coccidiosis, coughing,

flu-like symptoms,

Newcastle disease,

Blindness

[8, 9, 11]

Pedaliaceae

Sesanum angustifolius

Native, Annual

Gusha

Fruit

Crush fresh fruit and add to drinking water

New Castle Disease

[8, 9, 10, 11, 19]

Rubiaceae

Psydrax livida Native, Perennial

Muvengahonye

Leaves

Fresh leaves are ground, water added and paste placed on wounds

Septic wounds

[15]

Vangueria infausta

Native, Perennial

Munzviru

Leaves

Pound fresh leaves and prepare an infusion in water

Coccidiosis

[15]

Rutaceae

Citrus limon

Introduced, Perennial

Mundimu

Fruit

Fowlpox

[8, 9, 10, 17]

Solanaceae

Albizia gummifera

Albizia adianthifolia

Native, Perennial

Mucherenje/ Muwora

Bark

Animal made to drink suspension of powdered bark in water

Coccidiosis

diarrhoea

[7, 9, 10, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 21]

Capsicum annum

Introduced, Annual

Mhiripiri

Fruit

1. Animal made to drink crushed fruit and water mixture

2. Crush the seeds and mix with sugar solution for the birds to drink

Coccidiosis

Internal parasites

Diarrhoea

coughing,

flu-like symptoms,

Newcastle disease

[15]

Datura stramonium

Naturalised, Perennial

Zavazava

Leaves

Crush the leaves and apply extracts to wounds

Head wounds

[8, 10, 15, 17]

Lycopersicon esculentum

Introduced, Annual

Mutomatisi

Leaves

Pound fresh leaves and extract sap

Eye problems

Wounds

Fowlpox

[7, 8, 19]

Nicotiana tabacum

Introduced, Annual

Fodya

Leaves

Snuff mixed with soot is given to the animal in drinking water

Endoparasites

General weakness

Respiratory problems

[9, 11, 15, 19]

Solanum indicum

Native, Annual

Nhundurwa

Fruit

Roots

1. Fruit is crushed, fluid applied to the eye

2. Grind dried roots and suspend in drinking water

Eye problems

Wounds

Ectoparasites

[15, 19]

Verbenaceae

Lippia javanica

Native, Perennial

Zumbani

Leaves

Collect fresh leaves and place them in the fowl run

Ectoparasite control

[9, 10, 11, 17]

Kitchen soot

Chin’ai

Coccidiosis

Respiratory problems

A total of 53 medicinal plant species, shown in Table 1, were reported as being traditionally used to treat poultry diseases in Zimbabwe. The plants that were reviewed belonged to 26 different families. The most common families in this review were the Fabaceae with a frequency of 8 followed by Solanaceae with a frequency of 6 and are shown in Fig. 3. The most widely cited herbal plants were Aloe species all of which were referred to by the local people as gavakava. One or more of the species (Aloe vera, Aloe spicata, Aloe greatheadii, Aloe chabaudii, Aloe babarbadensis and Aloe aborescens) were mentioned in 14 studies out of the 15 studies that were reviewed. Capsicum annum (mhiripiri), a common garden plant, was the second most cited herbal plant being mentioned in 9 corresponding articles. Twenty-one herbal plants were cited only in single articles.

Leaves were the most frequently used part of plants, accounting for 32% of all the plant parts that are used. Bark was the second most used part with a frequency of 22%. The least used plant parts were stems, branches and pods with frequencies of 2% each as shown in Fig. 1.

The methods used in preparing herbal plants for treating poultry are shown in Fig. 2. The most frequently used method of preparing plant material before treatment was crushing using grinding stone (40%) followed by pounding using mortar and pestle (26%). As shown in Fig. 2, mixing plant parts with other substances such as, salt and soot is the method of preparation least used preparation with a frequency of 4%. Figure 4 shows the origins of the medicinal plants used in the management of poultry health. Out of the 53 plant species that were reviewed, 34 of the plants were native while 12 were introduced and 7 were naturalised. An introduced plant species is a species living outside its native distributional range, has arrived there by human activity, directly or indirectly, and either deliberately or accidentally [25] whereas an naturalised plants are non-native species that are growing on their own in nature; they may have originated as a garden escape, an agricultural escape, or an accidentally introduced weed [26]. Eighty nine percent of the plants reviewed were perennial and 6% percent were annual.

Data obtained from the selected articles were categorized presenting information about the local names of plants, the study area, language, typology of the study participants in the selected studies (Table 2). The adopted categorization was made in order to divide the analyzed literature into groups, which had to be able to show variations in cultural variables.

Table 2

Cross-cultural analysis of the use of medicinal plants in the treatment of poultry diseases
Author	Area of Study	Province	Language	Typology of study participants	Number of species used in poultry health mentioned
[18]	Takavarasha, Chivi	Masvingo	Shona	Farmers	4
[15]	Chipinge Murehwa Bindura	Manicaland Mashonaland East Mashonaland Central	Shona	Farmers (74% males)	34
[8]	Nhema	Midlands	Shona	Farmers (61% males) Traditional healers	19
[10]	Gutu	Masvingo	Shona	Famers (63% males)	14
[11]		Mashonaland East, Mashonaland West, Mashonaland Central	Shona	Household elders Traditional healers Herbalists	9
[23]	Zhombe	Midlands	Shona Ndebele	Livestock farmers	2
[21]	Rushinga	Mashonaland Central	Shona	Willing poultry farmers	5
[17]	Mushagashe	Masvingo	Shona	Poultry farmers	10
[19]	Matobo Kadoma Muzarabani Chiredzi	Matabeleland South Mashonaland West Mashonaland Central Masvingo	Ndebele Shona	Livestock farmers (78.5% males)	5

An analysis of the cross-cultural agreement among languages in different study areas was done and we found a high degree of consensus for the language and typology of study participants. However, number of species used in poultry health varied significantly in the different areas of the country. The study by Jambwa and coworkers [15] in Manicaland, Mashonaland East and Mashonaland Central reported the highest number (34) of plant species used in managing poultry health. A study by [23] in Zhombe, Midlands had the lowest number of plants that are used for treatment of poultry diseases. Except for only two studies [19, 23] where there were Ndebele speaking communities in addition to Shona speaking ones, in nearly all the areas of study the participants were Shona speaking. The study areas covered in this review included 7 of the 10 provinces of Zimbabwe.

A comparative analysis was done to investigate which plants and their uses were associated with which regions. The different uses of medicinal plants with the highest use values presented in Fig. 6 are presented against the different study areas reviewed and shown in Table 3.

Table 3

Reported cross-regional usage of plant species in poultry health management
Plant species		Use	Study area (Province)
Vernacular name	Scientific name
Gavakava	Aloe spp.	Diarrhoea	Midlands [8] Masvingo [18]
		Ectoparasites	Matabeleland [19] Mashonaland [19] Masvingo [19] Midlands [8]
		General weakness/ weight loss	Manicaland [15] Mashonaland [15] Midlands [8]
		Respiratory infections	Midlands [8] Masvingo [10, 18] Manicaland [15] Mashonaland [15]
		Septic wounds	Midlands [8] Mashonaland [11] Masvingo [10]
		Endoparasites	Matabelelend [19] Mashonaland [11, 19] Masvingo [19]
		New Castle Disease	Masvingo [17] Manicaland [15] Mashonaland [15]
		Coccidiosis	Mashonaland [11, 15] Masvingo [[10, 17, 18] Manicaland [15]
Rusungwe/ chifure	Sarcostema viminale	Diarrhoea	Midlands [8] Masvingo [10, 17]
		Coccidiosis	Manicaland [15] Mashonaland [15]
		Endoparasites	Midlands [8]
Murumanyama	Xeroderris stuhlmanni	Diarrhoea	Matabeleland [19] Mashonaland [11, 15, 19] Masvingo [19]
		Coccidiosis	Manicaland [15] Mashonaland [15]
		Lethargic birds	Manicaland [15] Mashonaland [15]
		Endoparasites	Matabeleland [19] Mashonaland [19] Masvingo [19]
Muvengahonye	Cissus succulenta	Septic wounds	Midlands [8] Mashonaland [11] Masvingo [10]
Mhiripiri	Capsicum annum	Diarrhoea	Midlands [8] Masvingo [10]
		Coccidiosis	Masvingo [10, 17] Mashonaland [15] Manicaland [15]
		New Castle Disease	Masvingo [10] Mashonaland [15] Manicaland [15]
		Respiratory diseases	Mashonaland [15] Manicaland [15]
		Endoparasites	Matabeleland [19] Mashonaland [19] Masvingo [19]
Nhundurwa	Solanum indicum	Eye problems	Midlands [8] Mashonaland [11]
Nhundurwa	Solanum indicum	Wounds	Manicaland [15] Mashonaland [15]
Mudomasi	Lycoperscon esculentum	Eye problems	Masvingo [10, 17] Midlands [8]
		Wounds	Manicaland [15] Mashonaland [15]
		Fowlpox	Manicaland [15] Mashonaland [15]
Muwora/ mucherenje	Albizia gummifera	Coccidiosis	Masvingo [10, 17]
		Diarrhoea	Midlands [8] Masvingo [10]
		Respiratory diseases	Masvingo [10]
		Wounds	Masvingo [18]
Mubhanana	Musa sapientum	Endoparasites	Mashonaland [11] Midlands [8]
		Snakebites	Midlands [8]
		Coccidiosis	Manicaland [15] Mashonaland [15]

The use of Aloe species was common across all the 7 provinces that were in the publications reviewed followed by Capsicum annum which was included in 5 of the 7 provinces. The least common species was Albizia gummifera and was only found in 2 of the 7 provinces included in the reviewed articles.

In a previous study by [27] they concluded that herbaceous medicinal plants were the widely used for the treatment of various ailments followed by trees and shrubs and this is in agreement with the current review since both Solanaceae and Fabaceae families are characterised by trees, shrubs, herbs and vines.

The Fabaceae family is widely distributed, and is the third-largest land plant family in number of species. Fabaceae frequently contain alkaloids, which have a wide range of pharmacological activities [27] and this leads to their broad use in ethnoveterinary. Fabaceae is the second largest family of medicinal plants, containing over 490 medicinal plant species [29], most of which have been used as traditional medicines. All members of the Fabaceae family reviewed in the article are perennial plants that are available throughout the year, which may account for their common use. A study by [30] indicated that plants of family Fabaceae have medicinal values in leaves, pods stems bark and roots and this is in agreement with the current review where the plants under Fabaceae have their pods, bark, sap and leaves being used for treatment. In agreement with the current review, a study in Botswana by [31] reported the common use of Fabaceae plant species for the management of poultry diseases. The study by [31] identified Colophospermum mopane, Senna italica and Cassia abbreviate; all members of the Fabaceae family; to be used in the treatment of poultry diseases.

Most of the plants that had high use values were from the Solanaceae family and include Capsicum annum, Lycoperscon esculentum, Solanum indicum and Albizia gummifera. Solanaceae includes a number of agricultural crops, medicinal plants, spices, weeds, and ornamentals. The members of the Solanaceae are shrubs of small to medium size. Nicotiana tabacum, Lycoperscon esculentum, and Capsicum annum (Pepper) are either grown commercially or in household gardens. The remedies, therefore, would be expected to be more easily available than those obtained from the wild. Many members of the Solanaceae family contain potent alkaloids thus the wide use in treating diseases [32]. The Solanaceae family has a worldwide distribution, being present on all continents. Most Solanaceae plants in the review were annual plants since they are mostly cultivated species with the exceptions however, of Albizia gummifera and Datura stramonium. Datura stramonium is a naturalized species and a perennial that is common in damp places and river banks. According to [33], the origin of Datura Stramonium is disputed, it can be of Asiatic origin but some sources report a probable Central American origin, due to Datura’s habitation of most temperate and subtropical parts of the world. Datura stramonium is an important medicinal plant from which tropane alkaloids, amino acids, tannin, phytic acids, carbohydrates have been isolated and has diverse biological activities [32].

Aloe species are not always easy to tell apart and this can be the reason why all various Aloe species were cited as gavakava in the reviewed articles. As seedlings, aloes are relatively easy to tell apart but as plants mature it can be a bit difficult to tell from some of the other aloes when not in flowering stages [34]. On the African continent aloes occur over much of Sub-Saharan Africa, although they are mainly concentrated in the southern and eastern regions of the continent. Aloe species encompasses over 400 species in the world and around 34 taxa are documented as indigenous to Zimbabwe according to [36]. In a review done by [37] Aloe species were said to be widely used in ethnomedicine for treating various ailments which include antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, antiplasmodial and anthelminthic providing a rationale for their wide use in traditional medicine.

Leaves were reported to be the plant parts most commonly used by traditional medicine practitioners in many African countries [38]. Leaves are responsible for synthesizing the majority of plant secondary metabolite and are an abundant source of active chemical entities, which can be extracted with relative ease [39] Regular harvest of leaves poses low threat to individual plants survival and encourages the frequent utilization of leaves in herbal preparations [38].

A study done in South Africa by [40] concluded that bark was the second mostly used part after leaves and this is in agreement with the current results. Bark contains the growing cells of the tree, as well as the cells required to transport water and sugar for photosynthesis on a cellular level [41]. Bark is always interacting with the rest of the tree, the surrounding trees, the mycorrhizae in the soil, and is constantly reading and responding to any changes in its surroundings [42]. Through the inner bark, (phloem), sap flows carrying the food of the tree produced in the leaves down to the trunks and roots. It is the phloem that contains biologically active substances, making it valuable medicinally [43]. There are risks however associated with using bark in traditional medicine; removing sections of the bark around the circumference of the trunk as this will prevent flow of nutrients from the leaves and result in death of the plant. There is need for sustainable bark harvesting in traditional medicines.

Plant roots can be rich sources of potent bio-active chemical compounds however, frequent usage of roots for herbal preparations can be risky to the survival of a plant species. Therefore, application of proper harvesting strategies and conservation measures is necessary to ensure sustainable utilization of medicinal plant resources [38, 40]. Creating awareness among the communities is thus important in order to preserve the medicinal plant species.

During preparation of remedies, farmers prefer methods that are simple and that use simple equipment [39] and as such the justification on the common use of crushing in this current review. Yirga and coworkers [38] reported that crushing or grinding in wooden or stone-made mortar and pestle different parts of plants are common methods for drug extraction. Depending on the routes of application and the medical objective, methods of preparing ethnoveterinary medicine differ. Water has been used in most of the herbal preparation methods. Ethnoveterinary studies in different areas also have water being used as the common solvent [31]. Water is a cheaply available solvent that can be used for many plant metabolites. When it comes to herbal plants, water will extract many properties of plants with the exception of resins which require a high proof alcohol [44].

Perennial plants are always available throughout the year and annual plants may be unavailable in certain times of the year [45, 46]. Perennial plants may however lose their leaves in some parts of the year and this becomes a challenge if leaves are used for treatment. Most annual plants that were used in treating poultry diseases were cultivated species, which most of them can be grown at any time of the year like Lycopersicon esculentum (Solanaceae). Native plants are mostly used in the treatment of poultry diseases since they are locally available in the wild [47]. Introduced/ cultivated plants can also be easily grown in gardens to be used for treatment of certain ailments [48].

Traditional uses of plants may be affected by the cultural background of users, which can include the language of people [49]. We, therefore, used language as an indicator of cultural background. In the publications that are reviewed here, language, did not determine uses of medicinal plants as uses of different plants were common amongst Shona and Ndebele speaking communities. Cultures are geographically connecting providing opportunities for sharing plant resources and knowledge [50].

Geographical and cross-cultural linkage has contributed to knowledge sharing [51]. Chipinge, which was the focal study area for [15], has a wide diversity of plants since it is Natural Region 1 hence the high numbers of plants recorded to be used in the management of poultry health. Zimbabwe’s plant diversity is a function of ecosystem characteristics that are attributable to the rainfall, geological, soil and temperature conditions within ecoregions [52].

The diversity of regional plants and people making their traditional knowledge are enormously diverse, therefore, to achieve a comprehensive documentation of such intellectual knowledge, we should rely on studies at local level. More field surveys need to be carried out to document more plants used in poultry health management in different parts of the country. Future research needs to focus on investigating the therapeutic effectiveness of the various plant materials under clearly defined experimental conditions. The ultimate goal would be to isolate and identify potentially useful compounds to be used in drug discovery.

Search strategy

A web-based systematic literature search strategy was employed. Ethno-veterinary studies reporting on medicinal plants that are used for the treatment of poultry diseases in Zimbabwe were gathered. The search was done for articles published in journals using international scientific search tools including PubMed, Science direct, Web of Science, Google Scholar, Scopus, SciFinder and AJOL. The search terms were selected from key word indices from major ethno-veterinary journals including the Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine. The search terms that were used included (ethno OR traditional OR folk) AND (herbal plants OR medicinal plants) AND (veterinary OR animal OR livestock OR farm OR poultry) AND (Zimbabwe). Information that was not in some studies, particularly local names and names of plant families, and misspelled scientific names were retrieved and confirmed from the ZimFlora website.

Screening and criteria

Screening of search outputs was performed in two stages. The title and abstract of identified articles were reviewed. Thereafter, articles that covered medicinal plants and their uses in management of livestock health in Zimbabwe were downloaded and critically inspected for inclusion in the review. Screening of the literature was based on the following inclusion and exclusion criteria.

Criteria for inclusion

Published ethno-veterinary studies in which plants used to treat poultry diseases conducted in Zimbabwe are reported without any specifics on year of study.

Exclusion criteria

Excluded from the analysis were

data from published studies lacking information on area in which the study was done, scientific names of the plants and without information about plants that are used to treat poultry diseases and

non-open access journal articles or partially accessed articles since we could not get any data that we required.

The review focused on open access articles since they are free for all, they have improved access for the general population and free access to scientific papers regardless of affiliation with a subscription library.

Analysis of data

Information about medicinal plants including names, species name, local names, used parts for the treatment of poultry and the methods used to prepare remedies are shown in Table 1. The cited plant parts, preparation methods, plant family groups, plant origins and descriptions are shown in Figs. 1 to 4. Graphs and charts were done using Microsoft Excel.

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank reviewers for their constructive comments.

Conflicts of interests

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Alders RG, Dumas SE, Rukambile E, Magoke G, Maulaga W, Jong J, Costa R. Family poultry: Multiple roles, systems, challenges, and options for sustainable contributions to household nutrition security through a planetary health lens. Maternal & child nutrition. 2018 Oct;14:e12668.
Ravindran V. Poultry feed availability and nutrition in developing countries. Poultry development review. 2013 Jan;2:60–3.
Mottet A, Tempio G. Global poultry production: current state and future outlook and challenges. World's Poultry Science Journal. 2017 Jun;73(2):245–56.
OECD. Agriculture in sub-Saharan Africa: prospects and challenges for the next decade. OECD-FAO Agricultural Outlook. 2016;2025(181):1–39.
Mudzengi CP. Promoting the use of ethnoveterinary practices in livestock health management in Masvingo Province, Zimbabwe. Ethnobotany Research and Applications. 2014 Sep 11;12:397–405.
Dhana K. Multiple Beneficial Applications and Modes of Action of Herbs in Poultry. International Journal of Pharmacology. 2015;100(3):152–76.
Maroyi, A. Use of Ethnoveterinary Medicine by Small-Scale Farmers to Treat Livestock Diseases: An Alternative to Orthodox Livestock Health Delivery System in Southern Africa. 2021;10(07):32–40.
Maroyi A. Use of traditional veterinary medicine in Nhema communal area of the Midlands province, Zimbabwe. African Journal of Traditional, Complementary and Alternative Medicines. 2012;9(3):315–22.
Marandure T. Concepts and key issues of ethnoveterinary medicine in Africa: A review of its application in Zimbabwe. African Journal of Agricultural Research. 2016 May 19;11(20):1836-41.
Masimba ES, Mbiriri DT, Kashangura MT, Mutibvu T. Indigenous practices for the control and treatment of ailments in Zimbabwe’s village poultry. Livest Res Rural Dev. 2011;23(12):2–9.
Matekaire T, Bwakura TM. Ethnoveterinary medicine: A potential alternative to orthodox animal health delivery in Zimbabwe. International Journal of Applied Research in Veterinary Medicine. 2004;2(4):269–73.
Lulekal E, Kelbessa E, Bekele T, Yineger H. An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants in Mana Angetu District, southeastern Ethiopia. Journal of ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine. 2008 Dec;4(1):1–0.
Regassa R. Assessment of indigenous knowledge of medicinal plant practice and mode of service delivery in Hawassa city, southern Ethiopia. Journal of Medicinal Plants Research. 2013 Mar 3;7(9):517–35.
Zerabruk S, Yirga G. Traditional knowledge of medicinal plants in Gindeberet district, Western Ethiopia. South African Journal of Botany. 2012 Jan 1;78:165–9.
Jambwa P, Katsande S, Matope G, McGaw LJ. Ethnoveterinary remedies used in avian complementary medicine in selected communal areas in Zimbabwe. Planta Medica. 2021 Aug 5.
Mapiye C, Mwale M, Mupangwa JF, Chimonyo M, Foti R, Mutenje MJ. A research review of village chicken production constraints and opportunities in Zimbabwe. Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences. 2008;21(11):1680–8.
Mwale M, Bhebhe E, Chimonyo M, Halimani TE. Use of herbal plants in poultry health management in the Mushagashe small-scale commercial farming area in Zimbabwe. International journal of applied Research in veterinary Medicine. 2005;3(2):163–70.
Gumbochuma G, Hamandishe VR, Nyahangare ET, Imbayarwo-Chikosi VE, Ncube S. Ethnoveterinary practices for poultry and cattle in Zimbabwe: a case study of Takavarasha village. SJAS. 2013;2(12):355–9.
Nyahangare ET, Mvumi BM, Mutibvu T. Ethnoveterinary plants and practices used for ecto-parasite control in semi-arid smallholder farming areas of Zimbabwe. Journal of ethnobiology and ethnomedicine. 2015 Dec;11(1):1–6.
Chavunduka DM. Plants regarded by Africans as being of medicinal value to animals. Rhodesian Veterinary Journal. 1976.
Muchadeyi FC, Sibanda S, Kusina NT, Kusina JF, Makuza SM. Village chicken flock dynamics and the contribution of chickens to household livelihoods in a smallholder farming area in Zimbabwe. Tropical Animal Health and Production. 2005 May;37(4):333–44.
Mbanga J, Mangoma N, Saidi B. An evaluation of the antimicrobial activities of Aloe barbadensis, A. chabaudii and A. arborescens leaf extracts used in Folklore Veterinary Medicine in Zimbabwe. Journal of Animal and Veterinary Advances. 2010;9(23):2918–23.
Mlambo T, Mbiriri DT, Mutibvu T, Kashangura MT. Village chicken production systems in Zhombe communal area of Zimbabwe. Livest Res Rural Dev. 2011;23:154.
Maroyi A, Cheikhyoussef A. A comparative study of medicinal plants used in rural areas of Namibia and Zimbabwe.2015;14:401–406
Carlton JT. INTRODUCED SPECIES. The Intertidal Wilderness: A Photographic Journey Through Pacific Coast Tidepools. 2002 Mar 29:294.
Pyšek P, Richardson DM. The biogeography of naturalization in alien plants. Journal of Biogeography. 2006 Dec;33(12):2040–50.
Gebrezgabiher G, Kalayou S, Sahle S. An ethno-veterinary survey of medicinal plants in woredas of Tigray region, Northern Ethiopia. International Journal of Biodiversity and Conservation. 2013 Feb 28;5(2):89–97.
Rahman AH, Parvin MI. Study of medicinal uses on Fabaceae family at Rajshahi, Bangladesh. Research in Plant Sciences. 2014 Jan 23;2(1):6–8.
Gao T, Yao H, Song J, Liu C, Zhu Y, Ma X, Pang X, Xu H, Chen S. Identification of medicinal plants in the family Fabaceae using a potential DNA barcode ITS2. Journal of ethnopharmacology. 2010 Jul 6;130(1):116–21.
Mongalo NI, Mafoko BJ. Cassia abbreviata Oliv. A review of its ethnomedicinal uses, toxicology, phytochemistry, possible propagation techniques and Pharmacology. African Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology. 2013 Dec 8;7(45):2901–6.
Moreki J. Documentation of ethnoveterinary practices used in family poultry in Botswana. Vet World 2012;6(1):18–21. doi:10.5455/vetworld.2013.18-21
Barboza GE, Hunziker AT, Bernardello G, Cocucci AA, Moscone AE, Carrizo García C, Fuentes V, Dillon MO, Bittrich V, Cosa MT, Subils R. Solanaceae. InFlowering plants. Eudicots 2016 (pp. 295–357). Springer, Cham.
Singh LR, Singh OM. Datura stramonium: An overview of its phytochemistry and pharmacognosy. Research Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry. 2013 May 1;5(3):143.
Vaza JS, Bhalerao A. Phytochemistry, medicinal values and pharmacological potential of Datura stramonium L. review. International Journal of Pharmaceutics and Drug Analysis. 2018 Jul 3:540–4.
De LC. Aloe vera–A Wonderful Medicinal Plant for Home Garden. Biotica Research Today. 2020 Sep 3;2(9):862–4.
ZimFlora website
Amoo SO, Aremu AO, Van Staden J. Unraveling the medicinal potential of South African Aloe species. Journal of ethnopharmacology. 2014 Apr 11;153(1):19–41.
Yirga G, Teferi M, Gidey G, Zerabruk S. An ethnoveterinary survey of medicinal plants used to treat livestock diseases in Seharti-Samre district, Northern Ethiopia. African Journal of Plant Science. 2012 Feb 6;6(3):113-9.
Aschale Y, Wubetu M, Abebaw A, Yirga T, Minwuyelet A, Toru M. A systematic review on traditional medicinal plants used for the treatment of viral and fungal infections in Ethiopia. Journal of Experimental Pharmacology. 2021;13:807.
Eiki N, Maake M, Lebelo S, Sakong B, Sebola N, Mabelebele M. Survey of Ethnoveterinary Medicines Used to Treat Livestock Diseases in Omusati and Kunene Regions of Namibia. Front. Vet. Sci. 2022;9:762771. doi: 10.3389
Owoeye EA, Ogboru RO, Bakpolor VR, Omobude DE. Phytochemical screening and proximate analysis of the bark of Piptadeniastrum africanum Hook (Fabaceae). World News of Natural Sciences. 2018;19.
Ita BN, Eduok SI. In vitro antioxidant and antifungal activities of Rhizophora racemosa GFW Mey. stem bark extracts. Scientific African. 2022 Mar 1;15:e01091.
Halilu EM, Abdurrahman AM, Mathias SN, Ugwah-Oguejiofor CJ, Abdulrahman M, Abubakar S. Phytochemical and antioxidant activity of Cadaba farinosa Forssk stem bark extracts. Physical Sciences Reviews. 2021 Jun 16.
Pohorille A, Pratt LR. Is water the universal solvent for life?. Origins of Life and Evolution of Biospheres. 2012 Oct;42(5):405-9.
Iwasa Y, Cohen D. Optimal growth schedule of a perennial plant. The American Naturalist. 1989 Apr 1;133(4):480–505.
Sithole D, Zisadza-Gandiwa P, Gandiwa E. An assessment of alien plant species in Gonarezhou National Park, Zimbabwe. Greener Journal of Agricultural Sciences. 2012;2(7):334–9.
Maroyi A. The casual, naturalised and invasive alien flora of Zimbabwe based on herbarium and literature records. Koedoe: African Protected Area Conservation and Science. 2012 Jan 1;54(1):1–6.
Hu R, Lin C, Xu W, Liu Y, Long C. Ethnobotanical study on medicinal plants used by Mulam people in Guangxi, China. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine. 2020 Dec;16(1):1–50.
Yao R, Heinrich M, Wei J, Xiao P. Cross-Cultural Ethnobotanical Assembly as a New Tool for Understanding Medicinal and Culinary Values–The Genus Lycium as A Case Study. Frontiers in Pharmacology. 2021;12.
Rexhepi B, Mustafa B, Hajdari A, Rushidi-Rexhepi J, Quave CL, Pieroni A. Cross-cultural ethnobotany of the Sharr Mountains (northwestern Macedonia). InEthnobotany and Biocultural Diversities in the Balkans 2014 (pp. 67–86). Springer, New York, NY.
Vlajcic D, Marzi G, Caputo A, Dabic M. The role of geographical distance on the relationship between cultural intelligence and knowledge transfer. Business Process Management Journal. 2018 Jul 4.
Mujaju C, Mudada N, Chikwenhere GP. Invasive Alien Species in Zimbabwe (Southern Africa). Invasive Alien Species: Observations and Issues from Around the World. 2021 Apr 23;1:330 – 61.

Download PDF

Version 1

posted

You are reading this latest preprint version

Medicinal Plants Used for the Treatment of Poultry Diseases in Zimbabwe: A Systematic Review

Status:

Version 1

Abstract

Figures

Introduction

Results

Discussion

Materials And Methods

Declarations

References

Status:

Version 1