Development and validation of the MARA scale in Spanish to assess knowledge, risks and barriers relating to breast cancer prevention


 Objective

The aim of this study was to develop a measurement instrument for assessing knowledge of breast cancer and perceived risk of developing the disease (MARA).
Methods

641 women with a mean age of 36.19 years (SD = 7.49) was used. Data collection took place during 2019 and included sociodemographic data, data on history of cancer and breast cancer and perceived risk and feelings of concern about developing breast cancer. Internal consistency, test-retest reliability, convergent validity, and structural validity were tested.
Results

The questionnaire items comprise 4 subscales: risk factors; signs and symptoms; perceived risk; barriers. A factor analysis revealed that the first two subscales had two dimensions each, whereas the other two subscales had one dimension each. Each subscale was shown to have adequate reliability (α = 0.74–0.92) and temporal stability (r = 0.201–0.906), as well as strong evidence of validity in relation to a questionnaire on breast cancer knowledge (r = 0.131–0.434). In addition, the subscales were shown to have high discriminatory power in terms of the presence or absence of a history of cancer or breast cancer, perceived risk, and feelings of concern.
Conclusion

The MARA questionnaire exhibits adequate psychometric properties for assessing knowledge of breast cancer as required in research and professional contexts.


Introduction
A large proportion of the most prevalent conditions of our time are associated with unhealthy behaviours. Speci cally, there is evidence to suggest that engaging in healthy behaviours contributes to the prevention of cancer [1].
According to the Health Belief Model (HBM), the following factors in uence whether or not a person makes behavioural changes when faced with a potential risk of developing a condition: their perception of the severity of the condition, their susceptibility to the condition, the bene ts that a change in behaviour will have on prevention of the condition, and the perceived di culties in implementing the recommended changes in behaviour [2]. In addition, the amount of knowledge an individual possesses about the condition also in uences their intentions to change their behaviour. For instance, when an individual has adequate knowledge, they may have greater motivation and re ective capacity, which could positively in uence their intention to change their behaviour [3].
For these reasons, the availability of a tool for assessing an individual's perceived risk, ability to engage in preventive behaviours, and knowledge about a particular condition is essential, so that disease prevention and health promotion strategies can be implemented to encourage healthy lifestyles. This is even more important when it comes to breast cancer, which is one of the main health problems affecting women around the world, and Spain is no exception. A number of behaviours that can be addressed and modi ed play a major role in the development of breast cancer [4].
A recently published review explored the factors in uencing women's decisions to participate in breast cancer prevention programmes, identifying the following: their perceived susceptibility to developing breast cancer, efforts required on their part to engage in healthy behaviours, their perceived competence, and their autonomy in carrying out the programme, among others [5]. These ndings reinforce the importance of women being aware of the signs and symptoms of breast cancer [6] and their ability to identify them early, so that the interval between the onset of the rst symptoms and the rst consultation with their healthcare provider is as short as possible [4] and their prognosis can be improved [7]. In addition, identifying the risk of developing breast cancer would facilitate the development of interventions based on individual needs [4] coinciding with women's preferences for receiving personalised information about their risks [5].
Several tools are currently available for assessing a woman's level of knowledge of breast cancer and her perceived risk of developing the disease [8,9]. These tools can be very helpful, as they allow women to identify their risks and enable health professionals to establish a personalised intervention in collaboration with each patient [10].

Aim
As we were unable to identify any validated questionnaires in Spanish speci cally assessing a combination of the aforementioned aspects, the objective of our study is to design the MARA questionnaire to assess levels of knowledge of breast cancer and the perceived risk of developing it and analyse its metric properties.

Participants
This cross-sectional study was carried out in 2019. In order to ful l the aforementioned objectives, the selfadministered questionnaire was distributed by email, text message, and social media. A convenience sampling method was used. Women and trusted individuals who had collaborated with the research team on previous studies were contacted via email, text message, and social media. In addition, after 2-3 weeks, the instrument was administered again (test-retest) to a total of 30 women randomly selected from among the participants.

Instruments
The MARA questionnaire. The MARA questionnaire was based on the b-CAS questionnaire [11], with the addition of eight questions: one question relating to individual aspects and seven relating to breast cancer knowledge. The b-CAS questionnaire consists of 9 items on sociodemographic aspects and 53 items on different aspects of breast cancer divided into ve categories: 1. knowledge of risk factors, 2. knowledge of signs and symptoms, 3. attitude towards breast cancer prevention, 4. barriers to early breast cancer screening techniques, and 5. displaying breast cancer prevention behaviours.
With the permission of Professor Rakkapao, the b-CAS questionnaire was translated into Spanish following the back-translation procedure proposed by the World Health Organisation [12]. Initially, two native Spanish speakers with a good command of English translated the original version into Spanish independently. Both translations were independently compared by two researchers, who identi ed and amended any inaccurate or ambiguous expressions and concepts. Six items were removed, as their content was not suitable for the Spanish context. The consensus version was blind-and back-translated into English by an independent translator, whose rendition was then compared with the original by another member of the research team to ensure semantic equivalence. The questionnaire was administered to ve women from outside the eld of healthcare who assessed each item in order to test its understandability, acceptability, and applicability. The nal version of the MARA questionnaire was then produced, comprising two sections. The rst section contains 7 items on individual variables and the second section contains 47 items divided into ve scales: risk factors (18 items), signs and symptoms (12 items), perceived risk and ability to engage in preventive behaviours (8 items), and barriers to engaging in preventive behaviours (9 items). Knowledge-related questions were coded with 3 response options (yes/no/I don't know). Correct answers scored 1 point, while incorrect answers or no answer scored 0 points. Questions relating to "perceived risk of developing breast cancer" and "barriers to breast cancer prevention" were measured using a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). In order to assess content validity, the MARA questionnaire was administered to 10 women, who assessed the clarity and understandability of its items. None of them reported any issues. The questionnaire was also sent to ve experts in instrument development and healthcare (breast cancer care specialists), who assessed and amended the wording and position of the items, resulting in no items being removed or altered.
Knowledge, perceived risk, and concern regarding breast cancer In the absence of a 'gold standard' instrument, the MARA questionnaire was administered along with questions written by Seven et al. [13]. The questionnaire consists of 12 questions measuring knowledge, perceived risk, and concerns regarding breast cancer. The questionnaire response format is 0=wrong answer/does not know and 1=right answer. Reliability, as measured with Cronbach's alpha, was .78. A positive relationship between the scores of the two questionnaires was hypothesised.

Psychometric properties of the MARA
Descriptive statistics, reliability, and temporal stability of scores. The descriptive statistics of the items (mean, standard deviation, skewness, and kurtosis) were analysed. The reliability of each scale was calculated using coe cient alpha for ordinal data [14] and McDonald's coe cient omega [15]. In order to explore the stability of the scores, test-retest reliability was also calculated using Pearson's correlation and intraclass correlation.
Validity. Construct validity was assessed using exploratory factor analysis (EFA). The Unweighted Least Squares (ULS) method was used to estimate the parameters in the EFA, and the Optimal Implementation of Parallel Analysis (OIPA) was used to determine the number of dimensions of each scale [16]. In scales where the parallel analysis indicated more than one factor, oblique (oblimin) rotation was used. The Comparative Fix Index (CFI) and the Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) were used as adjustment statistics, with CFI>.95 and RMSEA<.08 indicating a good t [17]. After studying the factor structures, Pearson's correlations between the different scales of the questionnaire were analysed. Evidence of validity in relation to other variables was tested using Pearson's correlation between the MARA and a breast cancer knowledge questionnaire by Seven et al. [13]. Evidence of validity with regard to discriminatory power was studied by analysing possible differences between scales in terms of the presence or absence of a family history of cancer and breast cancer. To this end, a t-test for independent samples was conducted by comparing means. An ANOVA was performed to check for any differences in perceived risk (none/low/moderate/high) and feelings of concern about developing breast cancer (none/low/moderate/high). To identify groups between which there were differences, a Bonferroni post-hoc test was carried out. Effect sizes were also calculated via Cohen's d, with 0.2-0.4 indicating a small effect size, 0.5-0.7 indicating a moderate effect size, and 0.7 and above indicating a large effect size [18].
The various EFAs and reliability tests were performed using the program FACTOR 10.5.03 [19]. The other analyses were carried out using SPSS 24 (IMB Corp, 2016).

Characteristics of the participants
A total of 641 women, all Spanish nationals, with a mean age of 36.19 years (SD=7.49) participated. 72.4% of them had a university education. 48.8% were single, 44.9% were married, 6.1% were divorced, and 0.2% were widowed. 77.4% had a history of cancer, and 28.1% had a history of breast cancer.

Psychometric properties
Construct validity. Items with factor weights below 0.30 were eliminated. As a result, 9 items on the risk factors scale, 3 items on the signs and symptoms scale, 2 items on the perceived risk scale, and 2 items on the barriers scale were eliminated. Table 1 shows the nal number of items (31). The OIPA suggested two dimensions for the risk factors and signs and symptoms scales, and a single dimension for the perceived risks and barriers scales. Model ts were adequate for all scales (Table 1). Table 2 shows the factorial weights for each item, all of which exceed 0.45. The correlations between the two dimensions that make up the risk factors scale and the signs and symptoms scale are adequate (r=0.40 and r=0.30, respectively).
Descriptive statistics, reliability, and temporal stability of scores. Regarding the descriptive statistics of the items, the kurtosis of items 3 and 4 of dimension 1 of the signs and symptoms scale and the kurtosis of items 2 and 4 of dimension 2 of this subscale stand out in particular (Table 3). Reliability was adequate for all scales (Table 3). In addition, with the exception of the speci c signs and symptoms scale, the temporal stability of the scores was shown to be adequate ( Table 4).
Evidence of validity in relation to other variables. Both modi able and non-modi able risk factor scales showed a correlation with the breast cancer knowledge questionnaire of 0. Evidence of validity with regard to discriminatory power. Differences in modi able risk factors are apparent, with women with a family history of cancer scoring signi cantly higher. Differences can also be identi ed on the barriers scale, with women with no history of breast cancer scoring signi cantly higher (Table 5). Finally, it is also important to note that women with higher levels of perceived risk exhibited lower knowledge of barriers and greater knowledge of signs and symptoms (Table 6).

Discussion
The MARA questionnaire for assessing knowledge of breast cancer, perceived risk of developing breast cancer, and perceived barriers regarding breast cancer prevention has been shown to have adequate psychometric properties for use in Spanish-speaking women. To the best of our knowledge, there is no tool available in Spanish that has the same characteristics as the MARA questionnaire.
The MARA questionnaire consists of four scales: risk factors, signs and symptoms, perceived risks, and perceived barriers. The risk factors scale displayed a two-dimensional structure, with two subscales: modi able risk factors and non-modi able risk factors. The signs and symptoms scale also exhibited a two-dimensional structure consisting of speci c signs and symptoms-associated with breast cancer by the general population -and non-speci c signs and symptoms-associated with other breast conditions by the general population.
Both scales (risk factors and signs and symptoms) showed a strong correlation between their subscales, allowing a total score to be obtained. Both the perceived risks and the barriers scales exhibited an essentially one-dimensional structure. Along with the fact that all the scales showed strong correlations between one another, this demonstrates that the scales constitute a signi cant body of knowledge on breast cancer.
Internal consistency was adequate for all scales, as shown by both Cronbach's alpha and McDonald's omega coe cients, ranging from 0.77 to 0.92. The scales also show adequate temporal stability in general [20].
In terms of evidence of validity in relation to other variables, the battery of questions in the MARA showed evidence of convergent validity [21], given that all the scales that it comprises showed strong correlations with the breast cancer knowledge questionnaire [13].
With respect to the discriminatory power of the battery of questions, differences in the risk factors scale based on the presence or absence of a family history of cancer stand out, with women with a family history of cancer scoring signi cantly higher. In addition, when looking at the barriers scale, women with no history of breast cancer show signi cantly higher scores. These results are consistent with those observed in previous studies. In addition, several authors suggest that having loved ones with a history of cancer acts as a facilitator for the development of preventive attitudes [22] and behaviours [23].
The MARA questionnaire has been shown to be effective in assessing knowledge of risk factors related to breast cancer, signs and symptoms of breast cancer, perceived individual risk of developing breast cancer, ability to engage in preventive behaviours, and barriers to breast cancer prevention. This information can help healthcare workers to meet women's needs in relation to breast cancer prevention.
On a personal level, possessing knowledge increases intentions to adopt healthy behaviours [24]. Speci cally, in the case of breast cancer, it acts as a mediating factor in predicting breast cancer screening practice [5,25]. Additionally, as the HBM suggests, an absence of knowledge directly affects perception [2].
Failure to perceive the existence of a health problem may lead to a failure to take action to prevent or address said problem. When women are aware of the risk factors for breast cancer, they are better placed to perceive their actual risk of developing the disease [26]. This can be used in clinical practice to implement individualised prevention and screening strategies [27].
In addition, identifying needs relating to the dimensions covered by the MARA allows these needs to be addressed and met, which can help women to take an active role not only in preventing the condition, but also in detecting it promptly. It should be borne in mind that prevention plans in Spain are standardised and their inclusion criteria are essentially based on women's age and individual and family history of breast cancer. For example, women and immediate relatives of women who have not had breast cancer are included in prevention programmes from the age of 50 onwards, which does not appear reasonable given the multiple causes associated with this type of cancer. This is demonstrated in a study by Mukama et al. [28], which suggests a need to establish speci c screening plans for these women and not to select exclusively on the basis of personal or family history. In the same vein, other authors have stated that public health initiatives should prioritise breast cancer prevention and early detection among women, paying special attention to women with a lack of knowledge, perception, and awareness of this type of cancer [29].
One limitation of our study is that the sample may not be representative. Culture and society determine behaviour, so the items of the MARA should be reviewed before use in other Spanish-speaking regions, such as Hispanic America.
Con rming the psychometric properties of the MARA questionnaire has important clinical implications. The MARA questionnaire can be used in healthcare and gynaecological facilities to assess Spanish women's knowledge, risks, perceptions, and barriers regarding breast cancer. The results of such an assessment may be used to inform educational and counselling interventions for addressing women's misconceptions and improving their knowledge about breast cancer.

Conclusion
The MARA questionnaire has adequate internal consistency and an adequate factor structure. It therefore represents a valid, reliable tool for assessing Spanish women's knowledge, risks, perceptions, and barriers regarding breast cancer.  Tables  Table 1. Exploratory factor analysis of the different scales in the battery of questions