The Effect of Grinding Time on Moisture Sorption, Particle Size Distribution, and Phenolic Bioaccessibility of Carob Powder

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-1744771/v1

Download PDF

Research Article

The Effect of Grinding Time on Moisture Sorption, Particle Size Distribution, and Phenolic Bioaccessibility of Carob Powder

https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-1744771/v1

This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License

Version 1

posted

You are reading this latest preprint version

Carob pods were ground for 30–180 s in a vibratory grinder. Particle size, colour, moisture sorption properties, antioxidant properties, and phenolic contents were examined. A static three-stage in vitro (oral, gastric, and intestinal) digestion process was performed to determine the fate of phenolic compounds and the antioxidant properties of the carob powder samples.

The median values (D₅₀) of particle size decreased after 60 s of grinding (87.9 μm), then increased to 135.1 μm. Lightness showed a negative correlation with D₅₀ and a_w, while redness and yellowness values decreased with the reduction of particle size and water activity. The smaller the particle size, the higher the equilibrium moisture content of carob powder. Phenolic acids (vanillic, ferulic, cinnamic) and flavonoids (luteolin, naringenin, apigenin) were found in all samples of carob powder. The grinding time influenced their content with maximum values in carob pods ground for 180 s. Similar observations were made when assessing antioxidant capacity. The in vitro digestion process improved the bioaccessibility of catechin content in all samples. However, the bioaccessibility of phenolic compounds, total phenolic and flavonoid content decreased with the increase in grinding time. Our findings revealed that the grinding of carob pods for 180 s improved the extractability of phenolics, however, their bioaccessibility was reduced. It is sufficient to ground carob pod for 30 s, which ensures good availability of nutraceuticals and lower energy cost for grinding.

phenolic

flavonoid

HPLC analysis

in vitro digestion

correlation

The carob pod is the fruit of Ceratonia siliqua L., a tree of the family Fabaceae. Carob powder was successfully used as a cocoa substitute in various food products [1, 2]. It also has a promising composition in relation to human health, containing various types of polyphenols (tannins, flavonoids, phenolic acids, etc.) [3]. Plant tissue is usually processed by drying to preserve the content of biologically active substances. Thereafter, the dried material is milled to a powder which can be utilized in various food formulations. Both drying and grinding techniques have an effect on the particle size distribution, powder fluidity, colour, and hydration [4]. The influence of the particle size on the physicochemical properties of plant-based powders has been well documented [5–8]. However, in these studies, powder fractions with different particle size distributions were obtained by sieving. Several studies were conducted to elucidate the effect of grinding time on the functional properties of powder samples using a planetary ball mill [9–13].

The decrease in particle size is known to lead to an increase in the surface area of the particles, resulting in better extraction efficiency for various bioactive compounds [14–16]. However, the concept of chemical extraction alone is no longer sufficient, and the bioaccessibility of the nutrients in relation to the structure of the food product must be examined [17]. A study of the bioaccessibility of phenolics from carob products has been published in only a few articles. Chait et al. [18] found that in vitro digestion affected the amount of free, bound, and conjugated phenolic compounds in carob powder. The three-step digestion process (oral, gastric, and intestinal) strongly reduced the phenolic content and antioxidant capacity of the carob pulp [19]. In our recent work, the effect of cryogenic and vibratory grinding on the content of phenolic acids was studied [20]. It is unknown different grinding times affect the bioaccessibility of the phenolic content and antioxidant potential using a vibratory grinder. We assume that the increase in grinding time positively affects the particle size distribution and moisture adsorption properties of carob powder. Therefore, a higher bioaccessibility of phenolics, flavonoids, and catechins is expected.

The Materials and Methods section is presented as supplementary material (Online Resource 1).

The effect of grinding time on particle size, colour and moisture adsorption properties of carob powder

Carob powder was prepared by vibratory grinder using processing times of 30 to 180 s in this study. Physical parameters are shown in Table 1. The grinding time had a significant effect on

Table 1

Particle size (µm), water activity (a_w), and colour (CIEL*a*b*) of carob powder after vibratory grinding
	Vibratory grinding time/s
	30	60	90	120	180
D₁₀	17.8 ± 1.1^b	15.2 ± 0.5^c	16.3 ± 2.1^bc	21.4 ± 0.8^a	19.4 ± 0.3^a
D₅₀	141.3 ± 2.5^a	87.9 ± 1.7^d	110.1 ± 3.5^c	129.7 ± 2.9^b	135.1 ± 1.8^b	***
D₉₀	427.7 ± 12.5^d	572.7 ± 8.1^b	494.6 ± 7.9^c	810.6 ± 21.3^a	429.7 ± 5.6^d
Span	2.9	6.3	4.3	6.1	3.0
a_w	0.380 ± 0.005^d	0.374 ± 0.002^d	0.403 ± 0.001^c	0.417 ± 0.001^b	0.433 ± 0.003^a	***
L*	47.1 ± 0.5^b	51.1 ± 0.4^a	49.4 ± 0.2^c	48.0 ± 0.3^d	47.0 ± 0.3^b	***
a*	6.3 ± 0.4^b	5.8 ± 0.6^b	6.3 ± 0.3^bc	6.8 ± 0.4^ac	6.9 ± 0.2^a	***
b*	19.0 ± 0.5^b	17.9 ± 0.4^c	18.7 ± 0.3^b	20.1 ± 0.4^a	19.8 ± 0.3^a	***

Results are expressed as mean ± standard deviation (particle size N = 2; a_w N = 3; colour N = 5). Different letters in superscript indicate significant differences in row according to Duncan multiple pairwise test (p < 0.05). Significant effect of grinding time using ANOVA was marked as ***=p < 0.001. D₁₀, D₉₀, and D₅₀ = lower decil, upper decil, and a median of cumulative weight

the particle size distribution. The D₅₀ values decreased significantly from 141.3 ± 2.5 to 87.9 ± 1.7 µm (p < 0.001) when ground for 30 and 60 s, respectively. A further increase in grinding time resulted in a gradual increase in D₅₀ values up to 135.1 ± 1.8 µm for CP180. A similar pattern was observed for the D₁₀ values. However, the particle size in the upper percentile (D₉₀) showed a different behaviour; high D₉₀ values of 527.7 ± 8.1 and 810.6 ± 21.3 µm were observed for CP60 and CP120, respectively. This finding also corresponded with high span values showing the lack of uniformity of the distribution (spans 6.3 and 6.1, respectively.). It was previously published that grinding time significantly influenced the particle size distribution of various food powders [10–13]. Reduction in particle size was observed with increasing ball milling time for onion peel [10], ginger rhizome [11], horseradish [12] or soybean protein isolate [13] powder. The long grinding time resulted in an increase in the value of D₉₀ caused by the sticking of the particles together and the formation of agglomerates for horseradish powder [12]. The agglomeration process occurred during the entire grinding of the dried mushrooms and was effectively disturbed by ultrasound treatment [9].

The grinding time of the carob pods significantly influenced all the values that describe the colour of the carob powder (p < 0.01). Lightness increased after 60 s of griding (L*= 51.1 ± 0.4), then gradually decreased with the increase of processing time (Table 1). Carob powder ground for 120 s and 180 s had higher values of redness (a*=6.8 ± 0.4 and 6.9 ± 0.2, respectively) and yellowness (b*=20.1 ± 0.4 and 19.8 ± 0.3, respectively).

Different colours can be visually observed only for CP60 in our study. Correlation analysis revealed a strong association between the median particle size (D₅₀) and the colour in terms of L* (r=-0,961, p < 0.001), a* (r = 0.634, p < 0.01), and b* (r = 0.764, p < 0.001). Interestingly, all of the colour values exhibited an association with the water activity of the carob powder. Whereas L* value showed negative association with a_w (r=-0.548, p < 0.05), the increase in a_w corresponded to increase in values of a* (r = 0.781, p < 0.01) and b* (r = 0.795, p < 0.001). The water activity of carob powder was similar for CP30 and CP60, then its increase was observed with increased grinding time. It might seem that the smaller the particles, the lower the water activity, as can be seen in Table 1. However, the correlation coefficient indicates a weak and negligible association (r = 0.464, p > 0.05).

Colour changes have been observed during the grinding of flours [6], rose-myrtle powder [7], or black kidney bean powder [8]. Drakos et al. [6] found that the colour changes during grinding were product-specific, i.e., different changes in the values of a* and b* were determined for jet milled rye and barley flours. Various fractions of particle size of kidney bean powder exhibited a weak association with colour stimuli, for example, the values of b* decreased with increasing particle size from 125 to 250 µm but increased significantly with a further reduction in particle diameter [8]. It should be noted that colour changes can also be affected by increasing the temperature during milling. The colour of the carob powder was influenced by temperature treatment, including roasting [27] or spray-drying [28]. The temperature of the metal equipment after 30 and 180 s of grinding was 22–24°C and 37–39°C, respectively, in this study.

According to the IUPAC classification, the shape of the moisture adsorption isotherms of all carob powder samples is type III [29], that is, an increase of EMC to ~ 25 mg/g in the range of 0–40% RH followed by a steep increase to ~ 259–268 mg/g in the range of 40 to 80% of RH. This is an obvious behavior for high-sugar food products [30]. The differences in the adsorption isotherm plots for the carob powder samples are barely visible; therefore, we compared the

EMC for two levels of RH. As can be seen in Fig. 1, EMC was significantly higher (p < 0.05) for the CP60 sample at both 10% (7.1 mg/g) and 60% (79.3 mg/g) of RH compared to other grinding times. EMC decreased with increasing grinding time from 60 to 180 s. These findings corresponded to the particle size distribution, where a strong association was found between D₅₀ and EMC at 10% (r=-0.883, p < 0.05) and 60% (r=-0.884, p < 0.05) of RH. It was well documented that reducing the particle size distribution results in improved water adsorption measured by water holding capacity, i.e., the smaller the particles, the higher the surface area available for moisture uptake [5, 14].

Grinding Time As Affected Antioxidant Properties And Phenolic Content In Carob Powder

The effect of grinding time on the phenolic content and antioxidant properties is presented in Table 2. ANOVA revealed that the grinding time had a significant effect on all variables (p < 0.001) excluding vanillic acid. Cinnamic acid was the most abundant phenolic constituent with a maximum value of 4.41 ± 0.08 µg/g in the CP180 sample. The carob powder ground for 180 s had a significantly higher content of all phenolics determined in this study compared to the CP120 sample. The TPC values ranged from 4.73 ± 0.21 to 6.07 ± 0.15 GAE/(mg/g), with a maximum value for CP180. The TFC value was significantly higher for CP60 (0.33 ± 0.13 QUE/(mg/g)) compared to CP30 (p < 0.05). The increase in grinding time from 90 to 120 s led to the same TFC values (p > 0.05). Although the CC values appeared to increase with increased grinding time, the differences were not statistically significant (p > 0.05). DPPH values increased after 60 s of grinding to 11.91 ± 0.51 TEAC/(mg/g) (p < 0.05), then decreased significantly for CP90 (p < 0.05) followed by a further increase reaching its maximum value of 11.93 ± 0.74 TEAC/(mg/g) for CP180. FRAP values followed the same pattern with the highest antioxidant capacity for the CP120 sample (16.95 ± 1.08 TEAC/(mg/g)). As was expected, positive associations were found between antioxidant properties in terms of DPPH and FRAP assays, and TPC, TFC, and catechin content (r = 0.656–0.836, p < 0.05). The particle size distribution was associated with the release of phenolic compounds during the extraction procedure [15]. In contrast, some experiments did not confirm the correlation between particle size and phenolic content [16] or antioxidant capacity [6], probably due to different materials, grinding techniques, or particle size ranges. In our study, weak negative association (p > 0.05) between D₅₀ and TPC (r=-0.421), ferulic acid (r=-0.439), and naringenin (r=-0.460) was observed. The higher ability to scavenge DPPH radical was significantly associated with lower D₅₀ values (r=-0.606, p < 0.05). It suggests that carob powder with small particle size can release more phenolics during extraction; however, other factors should also be considered.

Table 2

Phenolic content and antioxidant properties of carob powder prepared by vibratory grinding at various processing times
	Vibratory grinding time/s
	30	60	90	120	180	ANOVA
w/(µg/g)
Vanillic acid	3.95 ± 0.40^ab	4.17 ± 0.40^ab	3.58 ± 0.43^ab	4.08 ± 0.26^b	4.41 ± 0.08^a
Ferulic acid	8.64 ± 0.04^d	10.77 ± 0.22^c	10.85 ± 0.43^c	10.09 ± 0.51^b	11.28 ± 0.09^ac	***
Cinnamic acid	45.20 ± 1.20^c	50.30 ± 1.13^b	47.80 ± 1.64^bc	50.00 ± 2.15^b	54.28 ± 1.42^a	***
Luteolin	13.62 ± 1.82^b	16.11 ± 1.44^b	15.17 ± 1.74^b	16.97 ± 1.00^b	20.52 ± 0.57^a	**
Naringenin	2.76 ± 0.06^c	6.77 ± 0.25^ab	6.67 ± 0.44^b	7.28 ± 0.30^a	7.28 ± 0.13^a	***
Apigenin	1.29 ± 0.19^d	1.94 ± 0.05^c	2.17 ± 0.06^ab	1.97 ± 0.11^bc	2.27 ± 0.04^a	***
w/(mg/g)
TPC as GAE	4.73 ± 0.21^d	5.84 ± 3.98^ae	5.41 ± 2.19^c	5.72 ± 0.20^be	6.07 ± 0.15^a	***
TFC as QUE	0.19 ± 0.15^b	0.33 ± 0.13^ac	0.27 ± 0.14^bc	0.32 ± 0.07^bc	0.39 ± 0.05^ac	*
CC as CAT	0.33 ± 0.13^a	0.36 ± 0.03^a	0.35 ± 0.12^a	0.44 ± 0.06^a	0.46 ± 0.19^a
DPPH as TEAC	9.29 ± 3.16^b	11.91 ± 0.51^a	9.80 ± 0.53^b	9.59 ± 1.62^b	11.93 ± 0.74^a	*
FRAP as TEAC	13.78 ± 1.33^b	16.11 ± 1.80^c	13.12 ± 1.28^b	16.95 ± 1.08^ac	16.52 ± 0.65^a	***

All results were on a dry mass basis and expressed as mean ± standard deviation (N = 3). Different superscript letters indicate significant differences in row according to Duncan multiple pairwise test (p < 0.05). Significant effect of grinding time using ANOVA was marked as *=p < 0.05, **=p < 0.01, ***=p < 0.001. TPC = total phenolic content, GAE = gallic acid equivalent, TFC = total flavonoid content, QUE = quercetin equivalent, CC = catechin content, CAT = catechin equivalent, DPPH = 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl radical assay, FRAP = ferric reducing antioxidant capacity, TEAC = Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity

The Effect Of Grinding Time On The Bioaccessibility Of Antioxidant Properties And Phenolic Content

The bioaccessibility of phenolic compounds from carob products was recently studied [18–20]. Chait et al. [18] observed an increase in free phenolic compounds, but the degradation of bound and conjugated compounds was determined after complete in vitro digestion. Pure phenolic acids and flavonoids were degraded during the oral, gastric, and intestinal digestion process, but the authors found that bioaccessibility depended on the type of the product [19]. For example, TPC retention was similar for carob powder, syrup, fibre, and extract. However, higher retention of DPPH was observed for carob powder than for carob extract.

Digestion liquid was used to examine the effect of various griding times on the release of phenolic substances from carob powder after three-stage in vitro digestion process in our study. We assume that phenolics in digestion fluid are readily absorbed in the small intestine.

As can be seen in Table 3, luteolin and apigenin were the flavonoids most affected by the digestion process of carob powder samples in this study. Luteolin content decreased by 12.5–19.5 µg/g, which is equivalent to 5–8% of its initial values. Apigenin content was reduced to 94–95%. The losses of apigenin were similar to those observed in deffated lupin seed during two-stage in vitro digestion [31]. Ferulic and cinnamic acid were the most stable during in vitro digestion showing 42–51% and 33–39% of bioaccessibility. The grinding time strongly affected the content of vanillic acid (p < 0.001), cinnamic acid (p < 0.001), luteolin (p < 0.01) and apigenin (p < 0.001) after three-stage digestion process, but no trend can be pointed out. Whereas vanillic acid content was the highest in CP30, the maximal content values for cinnamic acid, luteolin and apigenin were observed in different CP samples. Particle size did not influence the phenolic content after in vitro digestion. By comparing the bioavailability of substances in carob powder samples, we get a clearer overview of their fate during digestion. The bioaccessibility was remarkably different in CP30 and CP60 samples. For example, 23% and 14% of vanillic acid

Table 3

Phenolic content and antioxidant properties of carob powder after *in vitro* digestion, and its bioaccessibility
	Vibratory grinding time/s
	30	60	90	120	180
w/(µg/g)
Vanillic acid	0.91 ± 0.01^a (23) ^†	0.57 ± 0.03^b (14)	0.56 ± 0.00^b (15)	0.55 ± 0.01^b (13)	0.67 ± 0.23^b (12)	***
Ferulic acid	4.45 ± 2.12^ab (51)	4.28 ± 0.17^b (40)	4.68 ± 0.28^ab (43)	4.65 ± 0.24^ab (46)	4.71 ± 0.18^a (42)
Cinnamic acid	17.69 ± 0.37^b (39)	18.34 ± 0.38^a (36)	17.35 ± 0.35^b (36)	16.61 ± 0.28^c (33)	18.02 ± 0.14^a (33)	***
Luteolin	1.15 ± 0.03^a (8)	1.16 ± 0.04^a (7)	1.16 ± 0.03^a (8)	1.05 ± 0.04^b (6)	1.05 ± 0.07^b (5)	**
Naringenin	0.80 ± 0.02^a (29)	0.81 ± 0.02^a (12)	0.83 ± 0.01^a (12)	0.83 ± 0.03^a (11)	0.80 ± 0.03^a (11)
Apigenin	0.08 ± 0.00^c (6)	0.09 ± 0.01^c (5)	0.12 ± 0.00^a (6)	0.10 ± 0.01^b (5)	0.10 ± 0.01^b (5)	***
w/(mg/g)
TPC as GAE	5.10 ± 0.10^c (109)	5.51 ± 0.27^a (94)	5.09 ± 0.12^c (94)	5.66 ± 0.33^a (99)	5.32 ± 0.29^b (88)	**
TFC as QUE	0.24 ± 0.02^ab (126)	0.28 ± 0.05^a (85)	0.20 ± 0.01^b (74)	0.23 ± 0.03^b (72)	0.19 ± 0.02^b (49)	*
CC as CAT	0.59 ± 0.23^a (148)	0.52 ± 0.18^a (141)	0.50 ± 0.13^a (143)	0.57 ± 0.18^a (129)	0.53 ± 0.16^a (116)
DPPH as TEAC	10.24 ± 0.47^b (110)	12.17 ± 1.23^a (102)	11.21 ± 0.64^ab (114)	11.12 ± 1.16^ab (116)	11.09 ± 1.26^ab (93)	*
FRAP as TEAC	13.97 ± 0.26 (101)^d	16.12 ± 1.43^a (100)	15.07 ± 0.47^bc (115)	16.05 ± 0.69^a (95)	14.70 ± 0.31^cd (89)	***

^† bioaccessibility in % of initial content (in brackets); different superscript letters indicate significant differences in row according to Duncan multiple pairwise test (p < 0.05); significant effect of grinding time using ANOVA was marked as *=p < 0.05, **=p < 0.01, ***=p < 0.001.TPC = total phenolic content, GAE = gallic acid equivalent, TFC = total flavonoid content, QUE = quercetin equivalent, CC = catechin content, CAT = catechin equivalent, DPPH = 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl radical assay, FRAP = ferric reducing antioxidant capacity, TEAC = Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity

was observed after digestion of CP30 and CP60 samples, respectively. Further increase of grinding time resulted in similar retention as for CP60 sample. The same pattern was observed for ferulic acid (decrease from 51–40%) and naringenin (decrease from 29 to 12%). It should be noted that the level of bioaccessibility is dependent on the experimental procedure applied for initial content determination. The in vitro digestion process takes place in an aqueous environment, so the extraction of phenolics into water solution is a better option [32, 33]. However, water/organic solution mixtures were also used for the determination of the initial content of phenolic compounds [34, 35], which were then used for the bioaccessibility calculation.

Total phenolic (p < 0.01) and flavonoid (p < 0.05) contents of carob powder after in vitro digestion were affected by the grinding time. While CP60 and CP120 have the highest TPC values (5.51 ± 0.27 and 5.66 ± 0.33 mg GAE/g, respectively), the maximum TFC values were observed in CP30 and CP60 samples. Catechin content was similar for all the carob samples. Whereas bioaccessibility of phenolic individuals decreased after digestion of carob powder ground for 30 s, meanwhile TPC, TFC and CC increased to 109, 126, and 148%, respectively. This discrepancy can be explained by the subsequent release of other phenolic compounds after in vitro digestion process. An increase of total phenolic content and at the same time the decrease of some hydroxybenzoic acids after gastrointestinal digestion of soursop was reported [36]. Although the reduction of vanillic acid, caffeic acid, and catechin content in Martricaria recutita flower after duodenal digestion was observed, TPC value increased [37]. This was evidenced by the increase of rutin, quercitrin or quercetin content in their research. Further increase of grinding time resulted in the decrease of both TPC and TFC bioaccessibility reaching their minimum level of 88% and 49% for CP180 sample, respectively. Bioaccessibility of catechins also exhibited a gradual decrease with the increase of grinding time, but it was still improved in carob powder ground for the longest time. Antioxidant properties of digestive liquid ranged from 10.24 ± 0.47 to 12.17 ± 1.23 mg Trolox/g using DPPH assay, and from 13.97 ± 0.26 to 16.12 ± 1.43 mg Trolox/g using FRAP assay. The bioaccessible phenolic, flavonoid and catechin contents were not affected by the particle size of carob powder. It is likely that the bioaccessibility of phenolics can be influenced by particles smaller than those used in our study. Li et al. [38] observed that bioaccessible phenolic content and antiradical activity in wheat bran were enhanced in the powder fraction smaller than 19.16 µm. Our findings suggest that carob powder ground for 30 s represents a good source of bioactive substances.

The carob powder prepared by vibratory grinding had different properties in relation to the grinding time. However, increasing the grinding time did not lead to a pronounced decrease in particle size. The carob powder contained small particles after 60 s of grinding, then an increase was observed when ground to 180 s. It should be noted that large particles were also found in the carob powder ground for a longer time, probably due to their agglomeration. Moisture adsorption corresponded to the particle size. The colour changes of the carob powder were found to be important with respect to the grinding time, but small differences were observed. As expected, the extractability of phenolics to methanol/water solution has increased, particularly from carob powder ground for 180 s. In contrast, the bioaccessibility of the phenolic substances in that sample was low. This can be explained by the destruction of bioactive compounds in an alkaline environment during intestinal in vitro digestion. Based on the results, we have to admit that a long grinding time has a negative effect on the bioaccessibility of phenolics, particularly flavonoids. It is sufficient to ground carob pod for 30 s, which ensures good availability of nutraceuticals and lower energy cost for grinding. Since particle size did not significantly influence the bioaccessibility of phenolics, the effect of temperature during grinding or a microstructure of the particles can be further studied.

Acknowledgements

This research was financially supported by the student’s grant no.12/2022 provided by the Faculty of Chemical Technology, University of Pardubice. Thanks to Ms. Veronika Ostrá for technical assistance.

Funding: not applicable

Conflict of interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest

Data availability: The datasets generated during and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request

Authors contribution: The concept and the design of the study were prepared by [Libor Červenka], [Michaela Frühbauerová] and [Helena Velichová]. Material preparation, formal analysis, investigation, and statistical treatment of the data were performed by all the authors. The first draft of the manuscript was prepared by [Libor Červenka] and all authors commented on previous version of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Ethics approval: not applicable

Consent to participate: not applicable

Consent for publication: not applicable

Červenka L, Frühbauerová M, Velichová H (2019) Functional properties of muffin as affected by substituting wheat flour with carob powder. Potr S J F Sci 13(1):212–217. https://doi.org/10.5219/1033
Pawlowska K, Kuligowski M, Jasinska-Kuligowska I, Kidon M, Siger A, Rudzinska M et al (2018) Effect of replacing cocoa powder by carob powder in the muffins on sensory and physicochemical properties. Plant Foods Hum Nutr 73(3):196–202. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11130-018-0675-0
Stavrou IJ, Christou A, Kapnissi-Christodoulou (2018) Polyphenols in carobs: A review on their composition, antioxidant capacity and cytotoxic effects, and health impact. Food Chem 269:355–374. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2018.06.152
Liu S, Yu J, Zou J, Yang Y, Cui L, Chang X (2020) Effects of different drying and milling methods on the physicochemical properties and phenolic content of hawthorn fruit powders. J Food Process Preserv 44:e14460. https://doi.org/10.1111/jfpp.14460
Araújo AL, Silva Pena R (2020) Effect of particle size and temperature on the hygroscopic behaviour of cassava flour from dry group and storage time estimation. Cyta J Food 18(1):178–186. https://doi.org/10.1080/19476337.2020.1717635
Drakos A, Kyriakakis G, Evageliou V, Protonotariou S, Mandala I, Ritzoulis C (2017) Influence of jet milling and particle size on the composition, physicochemical and mechanical properties of barley and rye flours. Food Chem 215:326–332. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2016.07.169
Gao X, Zhu D, Liu Y, Zha L, Chen D, Guo H (2019) Physicochemical properties and anthocyanin bioaccessibility of downy rose-myrtle powder prepared by superfine grinding. Int J Food Prop 22(1):2022–2032. https://doi.org/10.1080/10942912.2019.1702999
Sun X, Zhang Y, Li J, Aslam N, Sun H, Zhao J et al (2019) Effects of particle size on physicochemical and functional properties of superfine black kidney bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) powder. PeerJ 7:e6369. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.6369
An Y, Sun Y, Zhang M, Adhikari B, Li Z (2019) Effect of ball milling time on physicochemical properties of Cordyceps militaris ultrafine particles. J Food Process Preserv 42:e13065. https://doi.org/10.1111/jfpe.13065
Jiang G, Ramachandraiah K, Wu Z, Li S, Eun J-B (2020) Impact of ball-milling time on the physical properties, bioactive compounds, and structural characteristics of onion peel powder. Food Biosci 36:100630. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fbio.2020.100630
Norhidayah A, Noriham A, Rusop M (2013) Changes in physical and antioxidant properties of nanostructured Zingiber officinale (ginger) rhizome as affected by milling time. Adv Mat Res 667:144–149. https://doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMR.667.144
Wang J, Zhang M, Devahastin S, Liu Y (2020) Influence of low-temperature ball milling time on physicochemical properties, flavor, bioactive compounds contents and antioxidant activity of horseradish powder. Adv Powder Technol 31:914–921. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apt.2019.12.011
Zhao X, Sun L, Zhang X, Liu H, Zhu Y (2020) Effect of ultrafine grinding time on the functional and flavor properties of soybean isolates. Colloids Surf B 196:111345. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.colsurfb.2020.111345
Benković M, Belščak-Cvitanović A, Bauman I, Komes D, Srečec S (2017) Flow properties and chemical composition of carob (Ceratonia siliqua L.) flours as related to particle size and seed presence. Food Res Int 100:211–218. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2017.08.048
Labanca RA, Svelander C, Alminger M (2019) Effect of particle size of chia seeds on bioaccessibility of phenolic compounds during in vitro digestion. Cogent Food Agric 5:1694775. https://doi.org/10.1080/23311932.2019.1694775
Savlak N, Türker B, Yeşilkanat N (2016) Effects of particle size distribution on some physical, chemical and functional properties of unripe banana flour. Food Chem 213:180–186. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2016.06.064
Capuano E, Pellegrini N (2019) An integrated look at the effect of structure on nutrient bioavailability in plant foods. J Sci Food Agric 99:493–498. https://doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.9298
Chait YA, Gunenc A, Bendali F, Hosseinian F (2020) Simulated gastrointestinal digestion and in vitro colonic fermentation of carob polyphenols: Bioaccessibility and bioactivity. LWT-Food Sci Technol 117:108623. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2019.108623
Goulas V, Hadjisolomou A (2019) Dynamic changes in targeted phenolic compounds and antioxidant potency of carob fruit (Ceratonia siliqua L.) products during in vitro digestion. LWT-Food Sci Technol 101:269–275. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2018.11.003
Frühbauerová M, Červenka L, Hájek T, Pouzar M, Palarčík J (2022) Bioaccessibility of phenolics from carob (Ceratonia siliqua L.) pod powder prepared by cryogenic and vibratory grinding. Food Chem 377:131968. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2021.131968
Świeca M, Baraniak B, Gawlik-Dziki U (2013) In vitro digestibility and starch content, predicted glycemic index and potential in vitro antidiabetic effect of lentil sprouts obtained by different germination techniques. Food Chem 138:1414–1420. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2012.09.122
Hunt RWG, Pointer MR (2011) Measuring Colour (fourth edition). John Wiley & Sons, Chichester, UK. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119975595
Sochor J, Ryvolová M, Krystofova O, Salas P, Hubalek J, Adam V et al (2010) Fully automated spectrometric protocols for determination of antioxidant activity: Advantages and disadvantages. Molecules 15(12):8618–8640. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules15128618
Baba S, Malik S (2018) Determination of total phenolic and flavonoid content, antimicrobial and antioxidant activity of a root extract of Arisaema jacquemontii Blume. J Taibah Univ Sci 9(4):449–454. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtusci.2014.11.001
Pękal A, Pyrzynska K (2014) Evaluation of aluminium complexation reaction for flavonoid content assay. Food Anal Methods 7(9):1776–1782. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12161-014-9814-x
Sun B, da Silva JR, Spranger I (1998) Critical factors of vanillin assay for catechins and proanthocyanidins. J Agric Food Chem 46(10):4267–4274. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf980366j
Boublenza I, Lazouni HA, Ghaffari L, Ruiz K, Fabiano-Tixier AS, Chemat F (2017) Influence of roasting on sensory, antioxidant, aromas, and physicochemical properties of carob pod powder (Ceratonia siliqua L.). J Food Quality 2017: 4193672. https://doi.org/10.1155/2017/4193672
Ali H, Al-Khalifa AR, Aboelsood W, Bareh G, Farouk A (2019) Influence of spray-drying on improving the quality of dried carob juice. Qual Assur Saf Crop 11(4):391–399. https://doi.org/10.3920/QAS2018.1524
Donohue MD, Aranovich GL (1998) Classification of Gibbs adsorption isotherms. Adv Colloid Interface Sci 76–77(1):137–152. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0001-8686(98)00044-X
Vega-Gálvez A, López J, Ah-Hen K, Torres MJ, Lemus-Mondaca R (2014) Thermodynamic properties, sorption isotherms and glass transition temperature of cape gooseberry (Physalis peruviana L.). Food Technol Biotechnol 52(1):83–92
Czubinski J, Wroblewska K, Czyzniejewski M, Górnaś P, Kachlicki P, Siger A (2019) Bioaccessibility of defatted lupin seed phenolic compounds in a standardized static in vitro digestion system. Food Res Int 19:1126–1134. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2018.09.057
Zeng Q, Xu Z, Dai M, Cao X, Xiong X, He S et al (2019) Effects of simulated digestion on the phenolic composition and antioxidant activity of different cultivars of lychee pericarp. BMC Chem 13:27. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13065-019-0544-4
Sun Y, Tao W, Huang H, Ye X, Sun P (2019) Flavonoids, phenolic acids, carotenoids and antioxidant activity of fresh eating citrus fruits, using the coupled in vitro digestion and human intestinal HepG2 cells model. Food Chem 279:321–327. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2018.12.019
Djaoudene O, Mansinhos I, Gonçalves S, Jara-Palacios MJ, Bey MB, Romano A (2021) Phenolic profile, antioxidant activity and enzyme inhibitory capacities of fruit and seed extracts from different Algerian cultivars of date (Phoenix dactylifera L.) were affected by in vitro simulated gastrointestinal digestion. S Afr J Bot 137:133–148. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sajb.2020.10.015
Panagopoulou EA, Chiou A, Kasimatis T-D, Bismpikis M, Mouraka P, Karathanos VT (2021) Dried dates: polar phenols and their fate during in vitro digestion. J Food Meas Charact 15:1899–1906. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11694-020-00785-7
Barros RGC, Pereira UC, Andrade JKS, Santo de Oliveira C, Vasconcelos SV, Narain N (2020) In vitro gastrointestinal digestion and probiotics fermentation impact on bioaccessbility of phenolics compounds and antioxidant capacity of some native and exotic fruit residues with potential antidiabetic effects. Food Res Int 136:109614. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2020.109614
Chen GL, Chen SG, Xie YQ, Chen F, Zhao Y, Luo CX, Gao YQ (2015) Total phenolic, flavonoid and antioxidant activity of 23 edible flowers subjected to in vitro digestion. J Funct Foods 17:243–259. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jff.2015.05.028
Li Y, Li M, Wang L, Li Z (2022) Effect of particle size on the release behavior and functional properties of wheat bran phenolic compounds during in vitro gastrointestinal digestion. Food Chem 367:130751. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2021.130751

No competing interests reported.

OnlineResource1.docx

Download PDF

Version 1

posted

You are reading this latest preprint version

The Effect of Grinding Time on Moisture Sorption, Particle Size Distribution, and Phenolic Bioaccessibility of Carob Powder

Status:

Version 1

Abstract

Figures

Introduction

Materials And Methods

Results And Discussion

Grinding Time As Affected Antioxidant Properties And Phenolic Content In Carob Powder

The Effect Of Grinding Time On The Bioaccessibility Of Antioxidant Properties And Phenolic Content

Conclusions

Statements And Declarations

References

Additional Declarations

Supplementary Files

Status:

Version 1