Table 1. Demographic Characteristic of Sport Undergraduates (n=101)
Variable
|
Male (n=37)
(Mean ± SD)
|
Female (n= 64)
(Mean ± SD)
|
Age (Years)
|
22.4 (±1.7)
|
21.9 (± 1.6)
|
Weight (kg)
|
61.3 (± 10.4)
|
50.1 (± 9.6)
|
Height (cm)
|
170.2 (± 6.4)
|
157.3 (± 5.2)
|
The table 1 shows the demographic characteristics of the sport undergraduates who participated for the study.
BMI
Table 2: Nutritional Status by BMI ranges of the Sport Sciences Undergraduates
Nutritional Status
|
BMI Range
|
Male
n
|
Female
n
|
Underweight
|
Below 18.5
|
13
|
24
|
Normal weight
|
18.5 – 24.9
|
20
|
35
|
Overweight
|
25.0 – 29.9
|
04
|
04
|
Obesity
|
Above 30.0
|
_-
|
01
|
According to their BMI values, the majority of the male (54%) and female (55%) undergraduates' nutritional status was at their normal weight while 32% males and 41% females reported to be in the underweight. However, 11% of male and 6% female students were overweight and 2% (one student) of female students were obese (Table 2).
Energy intake and macronutrient intake
Table 3: Comparisons of nutrient intake with Dietary Guidelines for Americans and Nutritional goals by WHO
Nutrient Intake
|
Recommendation
|
Mean ±SD intake
|
Female
|
|
Male
|
Female
|
|
Male
|
(n=64)
|
|
(n = 37)
|
Dietary Guidelines for Americans
|
Energy, kcal/day
|
2000
|
|
2400
|
1607±365
|
|
1723±296
|
Protein, g (RDA)
|
46
|
|
56
|
44±10
|
|
49±10
|
Protein, % E (AMDR)
|
10-35
|
|
10-35
|
11±1
|
|
11±1
|
Carbohydrate, g (RDA)
|
130
|
|
130
|
252±61
|
|
273±49
|
Carbohydrate, % E (AMDR)
|
45-65
|
|
45-65
|
59±4
|
|
59±3
|
Dietary Fiber, g (AI)
|
28
|
|
33.6
|
10±7
|
|
9±3
|
Added Sugars, % E (DGR)
|
<10
|
|
<10
|
6±3
|
|
4±2
|
Total Fat, % E (AMDR)
|
20-35
|
|
20-35
|
30±4
|
|
29±3
|
Saturated fat, % E (DGR)
|
<10
|
|
<10
|
21±3
|
|
20±3
|
Nutritional Goals provided by WHO
|
Protein, % E
|
10-15
|
11±1
|
|
11±1
|
Carbohydrate, % E
|
55-75
|
59±4
|
|
59±3
|
Dietary Fiber, g
|
>25
|
10±7
|
|
9±3
|
Added Sugars, % E
|
<10
|
6±3
|
|
4±2
|
Total Fat, % E
|
15-30
|
30±4
|
|
29±3
|
Saturated fat, % E
|
<10
|
21±3
|
|
20±3
|
WHO: World Health Organization, RDA: Recommended Dietary Allowance, AMDR: Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution Range, DGR: Dietary guidelines recommended limit, AI: Adequate intake, % E: Contribution for the total energy intake, * Considered 1800 kcal/day as the lower boundary of energy requirement, Bw: Bodyweight, n=number of undergraduates.
The mean nutrient intake of the male and female undergraduates compared with the recommendations provided by the DGA and WHO for a general adult population (Table 3). The mean energy intake per day of male undergraduates was 1723±296 kcal, whereas that of females was 1607±365 kcal. Only 11% of males and 3% of females meeting with the minimum recommended energy intake/day compared to the recommended energy intake for males and females 2400 kcal and 2000 kcal as provided by DGA. On average, male undergraduates showed a significant deficit of energy by 677 kcal/day (t = 13.31, p = 0.000), while female undergraduates were too significantly short of 393 kcal/day (t = -8.61, p= 0.000).
In comparison to the DGA’s RDA for the carbohydrate intake (130g), both females (252 g, t = 15.97, p = 0.000) and males (273 g, t =17.65, p = 0.000) showed a significantly higher intake being 193% and 210% high respectively. Further, according to the DGA’s AMDR (45-65%) and WHO nutritional goal (55-75%) % E requirement received from carbohydrate all males (100%) and females (100 %) were within the recommended ranges
However, the mean protein intake of females (44 g, t= -1.97, p=0.027)) and males (49 g, t= -4.25, p=0.000) was significantly below the DGA recommendations as RDA for protein 46 g, and 56 g respectively. Therefore, 19 % of males and 39 % of female students met with the DGA’s RDA of proteins. The mean % E requirement received from protein for both male and female was 11±1 which is closer to the lower end. Therefore, when comparing with the WHO recommendations of 10 – 15, % E from proteins all (100 %) male and female students were within the recommended range. However, according to the DGA recommendations as AMDR for protein (10-35%), 39% of females and 17% of males met the nutritional goal for protein. According to the nutritional goals for proteins provided by WHO (10-15 %) 81% of females and 93% of males met the energy contribution through protein.
The contribution of energy from total fat was met by both 100% of males and females according to both recommendations of DGA (20-35%) and WHO (15-30%). However, according to WHO recommendations % E received from total Fat, 45% of females and 61% of males met the nutritional goals, while 55% of females exceeded by 2.9±2.3 % and 39% of males exceeded the total fat intake by 2.2±1.9%.
A 20 % in males (t= 22.17, p=0.000) and 21% females (t= 26.66, p= 0.000) exhibited to be significantly higher mean intake of saturated fat than the recommendation of <10 % per day and females in comparison to both DGA’s DGR and WHO.
A100 % of the females and males did not consume an Adequate Intake (AI) of dietary fiber according to DGA recommended 28 g and 33.6 g respectively. However, according to the WHO nutritional goals only 8% of females met the recommendations of > 25 g per day. Therefore, the mean dietary fiber intake of males (9 g, t= -36.62, p=0.000) and females (10 g, t= -16.08, p= 0.000) were significantly lower than the recommended intake of >25g/day.
Comparison of Micro-nutrient intake with the recommendation
Table 4: Comparison of micronutrient intake with the WHO recommendation
Nutrient Intake
|
RDA
|
UL
|
(Mean ±SD) intake
|
|
F
|
M
|
F
(n=64)
|
M
(n=37)
|
|
|
Calcium, mg
|
1000
|
1000
|
2500
|
408±133
|
430±120
|
|
Magnesium, mg
|
220
|
260
|
350
|
180±44
|
188±40
|
|
Potassium, mg
|
>3500
|
>3500
|
-
|
1501±349
|
1538±301
|
|
Sodium, mg
|
<2000
|
<2000
|
2000
|
2424±603
|
2489±529
|
|
Iron, mg
|
19.6
|
9.1
|
45
|
9±2
|
10±2
|
|
Zinc, mg
|
4.9
|
7.0
|
40
|
6±1
|
7±1
|
|
Copper mg
|
0.9
|
0.9
|
10
|
1.5±0.5
|
1.6±0.4
|
|
Selenium,mg
|
26
|
34
|
400
|
44±16
|
55±19
|
|
Iodine ug
|
150
|
150
|
1100
|
56±22
|
64±22
|
|
Vitamin A ug
|
500
|
600
|
3000
|
339±265
|
353±144
|
|
Thiamin, mg
|
1.1
|
1.2
|
-
|
0.5±0.1
|
0.6±0.2
|
|
Riboflavin, mg
|
1.1
|
1.6
|
-
|
0.5±0.2
|
0.5±0.2
|
|
Niacin, mg
|
14
|
16
|
35
|
16±4
|
18±4
|
|
Folate, mg
|
400
|
400
|
1000
|
180±56
|
198±55
|
|
Vitamin B6 mg
|
1.3
|
1.3
|
-
|
0.8±0.2
|
0.9±0.2
|
|
Vitamin B12, mg
|
2.4
|
2.4
|
-
|
1.4±0.5
|
1.3±0.4
|
|
Vitamin C, mg
|
45
|
45
|
2000
|
21±14
|
18±9
|
|
Vitamin D ug
|
5
|
5
|
100
|
0.9±0.8
|
1.1±0.8
|
|
Vitamin E mg
|
7.5
|
10
|
-
|
1.9±1.7
|
1.8±0.7
|
|
RDA= Recommended Dietary Allowance, AI= Adequate Intake, UL= Upper Limit, R= Recommendation, M= male, F= female
The micronutrients in the dietary intake of the undergraduates were compared with the recommendations provided by the WHO that provide recommendations for both males and females in a general population (Table 4).
Mineral Intake
The intake of Ca, and K was significantly low in all male and female students. Therefore, the Ca intake of females (408 mg, t= -35.6, p=0.000), and males (430 mg, t= -4.25, p=0.000) was significantly below the RDA of 1000 mg. Similarly, the K intake of females (1501 mg, t = -45.8, p=0.000) and males (1538 mg, t=-39.7, p=0.000) was significantly below RDA of 3500 mg for both females and males. The Mg intake of females (180 mg, t=-7.3, p=0.000) and males (188 mg, t=-10.9, p=0.000) was significantly below the RDA of 220 mg for females and that of 260 mg for males. However, 16 % of females and 02% of males meet the RDA for Mg. Further, none of the female students had the RDA for Iron (19.6 mg), while 66% of males met the RDA of 9.1 mg. The mean iron intake of males (10 mg, t= 2.74, p=0.010) was significantly higher than the minimum RDA, while females' intake of 9 mg (t= -42.4, p= 0.000) was significantly lower than RDA. The sodium intake of both males (2489 mg) and females (2424 mg) was significantly higher (t= 5.6, p=0.000) than the recommended upper limit of 2000 mg. Further, only 20% of females and 15% of males had their sodium intake within the recommended limit. No male or female undergraduates met with the RDA for iodine dietary intake of 150 μg. The mean iodine intake of males (64μg) and females (56μg) were 43% and 37% lower than the recommendation, respectively. However, 95% of males and 86% females met the recommended dietary intake of copper while that of selenium was met by 93% of males and 91% females. The mean Zn intake of females (6 mg, t =8.8, p=0.000), was significantly higher than the RDA of 4.9 mg, while males met with the RDA 7.0 mg. Further, 84% of females and 44% of males meeting with the daily Zn requirement.
Vitamin Intake
The mean Vitamin A intake of females (339 μg) and males (353 μg) was significantly lower than the RDA of females 500 μg (t= -4.86, p=0.000) and males 600 μg (t =-10.43, p=0.000), respectively. Further, only 9% of females and 5% males met the RDA for Vitamin A. The mean Vitamin E intake of females (1.9 mg) and males (1.8 mg) were 82% and 75% below the RDA of 7.5 mg and 10 mg, respectively. Further, the Vitamin E intake of females (1.9 mg, t= -26.35, p=0.000) and males (1.8 mg, t= -71.26, p=0.000) were significantly below the recommendation while, none of the females or males met with the daily Vitamin E requirement. The mean Vitamin D intake of females (0.9 μg, t=-41.00, p=0.000) and males (1.1 μg, t=-29.65, p=0.000) was significantly below the RDA of 5 μg and none of the females and males were met the RDA of Vitamin D intake. The Vitamin C intake of females (21 mg, t= -13.71, p= 0.000) and males (18 mg, t=-18.25, p= 0.000) was significantly below the RDA of 45 mg while only 6% of females and 02% of males met the RDA of Vitamin C. The thiamine intake of females (0.5 mg) was significantly below the RDA of 1.1 mg (t= -48.0, p=0.000) while that of males (0.6 mg, t=-18.3, p=0.000) was significantly below the recommended (1.2 mg), hence, none of females and males met with the requirements. Further, the Riboflavin intake of females (0.5 mg, t=-24.0, p=0.000) were significantly below the RDA of 1.1 mg and that of males (0.5 mg, (t=-33.5, p=0.000) was significantly below the recommendations (1.6 mg). Further, only 2% of females met the RDA, while none of the males met the RDA of Riboflavin intake. The folate intake of females (180 μg) and males (198 μg) was fulfilled only 45% and 49.5% of RDA, respectively. Therefore, none of the female or male undergraduate met the RDA of folate intake. Similarly, none of the females and males met the RDA of Vitamin B6 intake and Vitamin B12 intake. The vitamin B6 intake of females (0.8 mg, t= -20.0, p=0.000) and males (0.9 mg, t =-12.17, p=0.000) was significantly below the RDA of 1.3 mg, while Vitamin B12 intake of females 1.4 μg (t=-16.0, p=0.000) and males 1.3 μg (t= -16.7, p= 0.000) also significantly below the RDA of 2.4 μg. However, 73% females and 66% males met the RDA of Niacin intake with a mean intake of 16 mg and 18 mg, respectively.