An Ethnobotanical Study of Traditional Medicinal Plants Used to Treat Human and Livestock Ailments From Diguna Fango District, Wolaita, Southern Ethiopia

Background Plants have been used as a traditional medicine for many years for the people of Wolaita, Ethiopia. The aim of the study was to record these local knowledge of the peoples who inhabit the Diguna Fango district. Methods A semi-structured interview was conducted with a total of 60 informants. Results Totally, 50 species belonging to 24 families were identied to treat 28 human and livestock ailments. Solanaceae (14.3%) was the most abundant family whereas; the rosaceae (1.00) had the highest family use value (FUV). Most of the plants (82%) were reportedly used to treat human diseases. Herbs (34%) were the dominant growth habits, followed by trees (33%). The leaves (30%) were identied as the most used plant part. The most common methods of remedy preparations were eating and chewing (18.2% each) followed by grinding (13.61%). Oral (73.3%) was the major route of administration, followed by dermal (21.7%). The cardiovascular system diseases category (1.00) had a higher informant consensus factor value followed by the fever disease category (0.90). Croton macrostachyus Hochst. ex Delile, Commelina benghalensis L., Triticum dicoccon (Schrank) Schübl and Pentas spp. (100%) had a higher delity level to treat swelling, chirt (skin diseases), weight gain, and bone fractures, respectively. Persea americana Mill. was ranked highest as the most preferable medicinal plant for various purposes by local people, followed by Acacia abyssinica Benth. The principal threatening factors reported were charcoal production (26%), agricultural expansion (15%), and rewood (14%). Out of the plants and their uses documented, 16% of the medicinal plants and 28.6% of the uses were novel.


Introduction
Human beings have relied on nature for their basic requirements as the source of medicines, shelters, food, fragrances, clothes, avors, fertilizers, and means of transportation throughout their lives. Well before the prehistoric era, plants were used for medicinal purposes to treat and cure diseases and to improve the health and well-being of humans and livestock. The majority of the populations in most of the developing countries depend on plants for primary healthcare [1] [2]. The medicinal plants are the source for the discovery of novel drugs and a quarter of the modern drugs contain one or more active principles of plant origin [3] [4]. According to Ohigashi [5], the top 25 best-selling medicines in the world originated from plant materials and still form the basis for modern health systems. The signi cance of medicinal plants to human livelihoods is essentially immeasurable [6].
In Ethiopia, 80% of the people use medicinal plants and their products for remedies. However, the knowledge and use of plants in many ethnic rural cultures has not been studied [7] [8]. Even though, medicinal plants are remaining the most important and sometimes the only source of therapeutics [9]. The community utilizes roots, barks, and other parts of the plant to make phytotherapies [10] and in the process they have developed their own local knowledge. This knowledge is transferred orally from one generation to the others via herbalists and well-informed elders. The traditional local doctors would be the best source of information about the medicinal values of the plants. Many practicing local doctors are still present in Ethiopia but, with the progress of modern medicine, the in uence and the number of those doctors are decreasing rapidly.
Despite their use as a source of medicine since time immemorial, the study and recording of medicinal plants has recently begun [11].
A few studies have been conducted and documented the medicinal properties of locally available plants, parts used, and ways of applications in southern Ethiopia, Assegid and Tesfaye [12] in Benna Tsemay district, Chama [13] in Damot Woyde district, Mirutse et al. [14] and Giday et al. [15] in Sheko, Agisho et al. [16] in Hadiya zone, Hailemariam et al. [17] in Konta special woreda, Tolossa et al. [18] in South Omo, Melesse et al. [19] in Kambata, Regassa [20] in Hawassa city, Tefera and Kim [21] in Hawassa zuria district, Tuasha et al. [22] in Dalle district, Sidama zone. However, in the Dinguna Fango district of Wolaita, there is no ethnobotanical literature concerning the medicinal use of plants. People in this region have developed traditional methods to provide remedies for the most common human illnesses through the use of plants. Therefore, for the conservation of plants, ensuring their sustainable use, and preserving knowledge for the next generation, documentation of traditional knowledge in this area is signi cant.

Study area description
The study was conducted in the towns of Bitena, Dimtu, and Bilate eta (Toto) Diguna Fango district, Wolaita zone, southern Ethiopia

Sampling informants
The study populations are the informants found in selected communities of Diguna Fango district. A strati ed random sampling technique (based on the local community settlement in rural or urban settings) was used to take a representative sample from rural and urban villages within the selected communities. Totally two municipal towns and one kebele farmer's association 'the smallest administrative unit contained within a district' were selected based on the presence of informants. The selected towns and one farmer's association were Bitena and Dimtu towns, and Bilate eta. A total of 60 informants (53 men and seven women) 20 from each of three villages were selected. The ages of the informants were between 20 to 57 years. From the total informants, six key informants (10% of the general informants) selection was done based on the purposive sampling technique, by determining the key person 'Hiillaa' of the community based on the recommendation of the community. A key-person is an experienced person within society by giving remedies for any human and livestock ailments and handy x all bone fractures by using his/her indigenous knowledge.

Ethnobotanical data collection and identi cation
In the course of the study, both qualitative and quantitative data were gathered through observation, questionnaires, and interviews from June 2020 to October 2020. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with informants who knew or used plants as medicine including about 10% of the total heads of family units (60 informants) to determine and explore the traditional knowledge regarding the utilization of medicinal plant species, their usefulness, the utilized part, mode of preparation, or method of processing the plants.
The interview activities were carried out in their entirety using an open and close-ended questionnaire prepared in Wolaita language and translated into English language (Annex: questionnaire). Informant selection was based on the snowball sampling technique, by determining the key person 'Hillaa' of the community. A key-person is an experienced person within society by giving remedies for any human and livestock ailments and handy x all bone fractures by using indigenous knowledge.

Data analysis
The collected data from observation, questionnaires, and interviews was tabulated and organized. To analyze the collected data Excel window 2019 was utilized in addition to other appropriate statistical methods such as frequency distribution and percentage.
According to disease categories in earlier work [21], [23] and with some modi cation, the ailments were categorized based on the usage reports mentioned by the informants in the study area.

Quantitative analysis
Fidelity Level (FL). FL is used to calculate the percentage of informants claiming the use of a given species for a particular purpose in a given cultural group or to determine the most preferred plants for a treatment of a particular ailment and calculated as: FL (%) =

Np/N × 100
Where: Np is the number of informants that claim a use of a plant species to treat a particular ailment. N is the number of informants that claim the plant as a medicine to treat any given ailment. The plant species that are widely used to treat a particular ailment by the local people have higher FL values than those that are less popular [23].
Family Use Value (FUV). FUV signi es the use-value of a given plant family that is used as medicine for a particular disease. It is calculated as: FUV = ∑UVs/Ns Where: ∑UVs is the sum of the use-values for all species belonging to a particular family. Ns is the total number of species in the same family. High values of FUV might be because the plant species were cited by a large number of people in the study area [24].
Informant consensus factor (ICF). ICF was calculated using the formula ICF = Nur-nt/nur-1, where ICF denotes the informant consensus factor, nur is a number of use citations, and nt is the number of species used [25]. ICF values range from 0.00 to 1.00. High ICF values are obtained when only one or a few plant species are reported to be used by a high proportion of informants to treat a particular ailment. Low ICF values indicate that informants disagree over which plant to use.

Direct matrix ranking
Key informants evaluated the functionality of multifunctional medicinal plants to the local people and indicated their scores for each medicinal plant (on a scale of 1 to 5). Based on use criteria (5 = best; 4 = very good; 3 = good; 2 = less used; 1 = least used and 0 = no value) Nine medicinal plants were selected to be evaluated in six usage categories.

Preference ranking
A preference ranking of six medicinal plants that were reported as effective for treating a particular ailment was conducted by using those six key informants by following [1]. Hence the most occurring disease treated by more medicinal plants was given least (1) and highest (5) score by key informants. This scoring and ranking system was also applied for the other seven medicinal plant species on their degree of local scarcity.

Family use value
The number of species within a family was calculated to get their Family Use Value. The result showed that Rosaceae had a high FUV (1.00), followed by Commelinaceae (0.98), Musaceae (0.97), and Rubiaceae (0.93). In contrast Flacourtiaceae (0.15) has lower FUV followed by Scrophulariaceae (0.27).
The dosage prescribed for the treatment of the same health condition varies between the informants. It was indicated that the doses for liquid preparations were prescribed through estimation, in terms of a full, half, or one-fourth of a coffee cup 'Sini', depending on the age of the patient being treated. For certain herbal preparations that are considered harmless, the doses depend on the patient's interest and/or ability to chew a plant or eat it for a certain health condition like sudden stomach pain relief. (e.g., chewing Solanium Incanum L. roots used to get stomach pain relief).

Human health problems treatment plants
A total of 50 species belong to 24 families were recorded, 41 (82%) species were used to treat human diseases (Fig. 7). A single plant can treat a number of human ailments, and a single ailment can be treated by many plants. For instance, stomachache is a major disease and can be treated by 16 medicinal plants. From the plants, Alliumsativum L. and Vernoniaamygdalina, Sch. Bip were used to treat more than three human ailments (Table 4).

Livestock aliments treating plants
A single medicinal plant was recorded as being used to treat livestock disease only 1 (2%) (Fig. 8). In the study area, livestock diseases were treated with fewer plants compared to those used to treat human diseases.
Human and livestock health ailments treatment plants A total of eight (16%) species were recorded as being used to treat both human and livestock diseases (Fig. 8). The most common diseases which affect human and livestock in the study area were skin disease, rabies, wound, and bone fractures.

Informant consensus factor
The disease categories with the highest informant consensus factor (ICF) values were cardiovascular system diseases (1.0), followed by fever (0.9), general and unspeci ed (0.86), skeletomuscular system disorders (0.82), endocrine/metabolic/nutritional (0.79), respiratory systems diseases (0.78), dermatological infections/diseases (0.76), sensory neuron disease (0.75), genito-urinary ailments (0.66), poisonous bites (0.57) and gastrointestinal ailments (0.55) ( Table 2). The medicinal plants that had higher ICF values were presumed to be more common and effective when used to treat a certain disease. However, poisonous bites and the gastrointestinal ailments category had a lower ICF value compared to other categories. Lower ICF values indicated that the informants disagreed on the taxa to be used as a treatment within the disease category. A greater number of plant species were used to treat gastrointestinal ailments (25) followed by dermatological infections/diseases (12) and then respiratory systems diseases (10).

Informant consensus
In this study, some medicinal plants were popular than others, and the highest informant consensus value was found for Triticum dicoccon (Schrank) Schübl which was cited by 60 respondents for treatment of bone fractures and weight gain. The second highest informant consensus value was found for Allium sativum L., which was cited by 59 respondents for treating cough, malaria, stomachache, evil spirit 'Goromootiya' or 'Buda' (Table 3). Informant consensus values give a good indication about particular species that serve for particular health problems and about speci c medicinal plants used for several health problems.

Fidelity level
Croton macrostachyus, Pentas spp., Triticum dicoccon and Commelina benghalensis were the four plant species with the highest delity levels (100%). The rst two species were in the skeletomuscular system disorders categories and the following two species were in endocrine/metabolic/nutritional and dermatological infections/diseases categories, respectively, and were followed by Citrus aurantiifolia (98%) and Solanium macrocarpon (97%) correspondingly within the gastrointestinal and respiratory systems diseases categories. A higher delity level (FL) can imply that a particular plant purpose is preferred if informants mentioned it often. In contrast, the lowest delity level value was assigned to Verbascum sinaiticum (25%), followed by Euphorbia tirucalli (27%) from poisonous bites and the genito-urinary ailments category, respectively. A lower delity level implies that a particular plant purpose is not preferred ( Table 4).

Direct matrix ranking
Based on the evaluation of key informants, the functionality of multifunctional medicinal plants to the local people scored from 1 to 5.
The output of the direct matrix analysis found Persea americana Mill. to be the preferred medicinal plant used for various purposes by the local people, followed by Acaciaabyssinica Benth. and Eucalyptusglobulus Labill. (Table 5).

Preference ranking
A preference ranking of six medicinal plants that were reported as effective for treating stomachache was conducted after selecting six key (knowledgeable) participants. Stomachache is the most occurring disease treated by more medicinal plants. The members were requested to associate the speci ed medicinal plants with their e cacy. The results showed that Hagenia abyssinica (Bruce ex Steud.) J.F.Gmel. scored the highest mark and ranked rst indicating that it was the most effective in treating stomachache and followed by Solanium incanum L. (Table 6). The preferences ranking of seven threatened medicinal plants of the study area as shown in Table 7, Acacia abyssinica Benth was scored the highest mark, and ranked rst indicating that it was the scarcest followed by Syzygium guineense and Eucalyptus globulus Labill.

Additional practices of the people on the usage of medicinal plants
In the study area, the majority of respondents reported that the medicinal plants can also be used as cash crops, rewood, spice, food, fodder, charcoal, insect repellent, furniture, and household construction materials. In this case, 29% of the medicinal plant species were reported to be used for cash crops, the highest rate, followed by rewood (19%), and spice (16%).

Discussion
Around 500 higher plant species, with around 12 percent endemism, and thus one of Africa's six rich plants biodiversity countries, are believed to have a home in Ethiopia [26]. The genetic diversity of the different biotic make-up is also high, making the country a vital It is estimated that nearly 6000 plant species with popular therapeutic usage in Africa [27]. About 80% of the people in the country use raw medicinal plants to meet their primary health care needs. This high percentage is due to a variety of factors, including restricted exposure to modern pharmaceutical products, and accessibility. This research has recorded the distribution of 50 medicinal plants in 26 families used for treating common animal and human diseases. Out of the 26 plant families, Solanaceae (14.3%) was the biggest contributor, followed by Asteraceae and Poaceae (10.2%) and Euphorbiaceae (8.16%). Solanaceae are considered to have a wide variety of alkaloids. Therapeutic, these are the most potent known anticholinergic species used for medicinal purposes in the world. The Solanaceae family is characteristically ethnobotanical, which is commonly used by humans. It is an essential source of food, spice, and medicine and is also recorded for insecticidal properties [28].
In the report, Asteraceae and Poaceae were the second dominant families in human health care. However, other ethnobotanical researchers [29] [30] considered Asteraceae to be dominant in their eld of study. This can be attributed to the geographical location, the social condition, and other cultural causes of local communities. The degree of ethnobotanical exploration in their areas of study may be a further explanation, or the entire region may not have been explored thoroughly.
In the eld of research, most plants have been used for treating human and livestock diseases. Among the 50 medicinal plants, 41 species were used for the treatment of 27 human ailments, whereas one species was used to treat one livestock ailments. The other eight species were used for the treatment of four common human and livestock diseases. Many medicinal plants have been used to treat a greater proportion of human diseases than animals because of human diseases such as stomachache, snake biting, cough, malaria, wound, 'mitch', and toothache. The rural population in the study area due to its socio-economic situation, the distance from its living area, and a lack of road infrastructure are not readily accessible for modern medical facilities. Abebe [8] and Hostettmann and Marston [2] have stated that 80% of people in the country are still using herbal remedies for various problems. Similar results from their study sites have been recorded in Ethiopia by many researchers [14]  The medicinal plants in the study area had diverse growth forms; in this case, herbs were the dominant growth form. Similarly, Chama [12], Giday et al. [14], Hailemariam et al. [16], and Lulekal et al. [31] reported that most medicinal plants were herbs in Damot Gale, Sheko, Konta and Ankober districts, respectively. In contrast, the majority of medicinal plants were shrubs in the south Omo and Mana Angetu [17], [32]. Regassa [18], in Hawassa city, indicated that the majority of the collected medicinal plants there were trees.
The results showed here that leaves were the most commonly used component, contributing rather than harvesting a root and/or whole plant to the conservation of plants. In the same way, Hailemariam et al. [16], Giday et al. [14], and Chama [12] reported leaves as the predominant plant part used in their study site. In contrast, the most frequently used plant parts were roots in the Hadiya zone [15] and in Benna-Tsemaye [11]. Lulekal et al. [32] and Tolossa et al. [17] also noted roots were the most commonly used plant part in a study focusing on Mana Angetu district and south Omo, respectively.
The local people in the Diguna Fango district use different remedy preparation process based on the type of disease to be treated.
Eating, chewing, grinding, squeezing, drinking, smelling, powdering, painting, boiling, hold on, and spitting were some of the preparation methods used to treat human and livestock diseases. In this survey, eating and chewing were the most widely used process. Apart from Diguna Fango, the most widely used remedy preparation methods have also been identi ed in similar ndings [11] [18] [20].
These were grinding, followed by chewing, boiling, eating, and in liquid form.
The remedies prepared have been administered in various ways. Some of the administrative routes have been oral, dermal, and nasal.
In the present region, most remedies have been administered orally and the dermal and nasal routes have been followed. In various parts of Ethiopia, similar ndings have also been reported. In the district of Damot Woyde the majority of medicinal plants were given orally [12]. Tolossa et al. [17] reported that the majority of plants were used in oral applications in the south Omo. Tolossa and Megersa [33] found that prepared remedies were widely administered orally in Berbere district, Bale zone of Oromia Regional State.
In the study area, the diseases affecting both humans and livestock were 28 in number. This indicated that the people of the district suffered from fewer ailments as compared to those in other areas, such as in the Berbere district, Tolossa and Megersa [33], Damot Gale district, [12] and the south Omo [17]. Moreover, a single human ailment found to be treatable by several medicinal plants. This is in agreement with the ndings of earlier studies [32] On average, the number of medicinal plants was substantially higher for informants under the age of 20 years than for informants above 35 years and by illiterate informants than literate ones. This may be due to the in uence of modernization and a lack of interest among younger generations in botanical medicines that would contribute to the conventional knowledge of older people. Similar conclusions also show that there are substantial gaps between different age groups in traditional knowledge [34]. Unlike the study now underway, the literary young people Tefera and Kim [20] have a higher level of knowledge in the use of medicinal plants than analphabets and old people.
For gastrointestinal disorders, the highest citation was found, followed by Fever. Similarly, the most frequently treated diseases in Hawassa [18] and South Omo [17] were gastrointestinal disorder and parasite infection. Furthermore, a study conducted in the Ethiopian community Sheko revealed that the widely treated diseases were skin and gastrointestinal problems [13]. In Berta, the ethnic group of Benishangul-Gumuz, diarrhea was a widely treated disease [35]. The disparity may be in uenced by the climate, ethnicity, and hygiene variations in the regions.
The highest-delity levels (100%) were found for Croton macrostachyus, Pentas spp., Triticumdicoccon, and Commelinabenghalensis in the current study. The rst two species were in the skeletomuscular system disorders categories and the following two species were in endocrine/metabolic/nutritional and dermatological infections/diseases categories, respectively. The category with the highest ICF values was cardiovascular system diseases, followed by Fever (Malaria). Similarly, the category with the highest ICF values was fever (malaria), followed by insects and ectoparasites diseases in Hawassa zuria district [20]. Regassa [18] reported stomachache had high degrees of ICF and that malaria showed the highest FL in Hawassa city.
The highest informant consensus value was found for Triticum dicoccon (Schrank) which was cited by 60 respondents for treatment of bone fractures and weight gain. Medicinal plants with higher informant consensus need to be seriously considered for further ethnopharmacological studies since they are species widely applied by many people and they have been utilized for a long time [36].
The output of the preference ranking indicated that Hageniaabyssinica (Bruce ex Steud.) J.F.Gmel., Rutachalepensis L., and Solanumincanum L. were the most commonly preferred medicinal plants as treatment for stomachache in humans in the study area. Similar ndings for south Omo showed that the highest numbers of plant species were reported to treat abdominal or stomach disorders [17]. Acaciaabyssinica Benth, Syzygiumguineense subsp. Macrocarpum (Engl.) F. White and Eucalyptusglobulus Labill, were ranked as the most threatened medicinal plants of the study area.
According to the direct matrix ranking results, Perseaamericana Mill, was ranked rst as the most preferred medicinal plant used for various purposes by the local people. The second and third most preferable medicinal plants were Acaciaabyssinica Benth. and Eucalyptusglobulus Labill., respectively. However, Prunusafricanus is the most preferred medicinal plant for various uses in the Hadiya zone [15]. Crotonmacrostachyus is the most multipurpose medicinal plant in the Berbere district of the Bale zone [33]. In the present study, Perseaamericana Mill. was used as a type of food, as fodder, as cash crop, in house construction, and sometimes in charcoal making.
According to the responses from informants, the main causes of the loss of medicinal plants in the study area were charcoal production following agricultural expansion, rewood, household construction and furniture making, deforestation, secrecy, unwillingness of the young generation, oral-based knowledge transfer, lack of awareness and environmental degradation. Similar results were found in other research concerning threats to medicinal plants in Berbere district [33], Damot Gale [12], and south Omo [17]. In order to maintain the indigenous knowledge and prevent the extinction of medicinal plant resources, greater conservation understanding of all members of the society is required.
Comparison with previous ethnobotanical studies Allium sativum L. and Vernonia amygdalina, Sch. Bip., were the most frequently used plant for stomachache, malaria, wound, evil eye, and cough in the present study, and similarly, Chama [12] reported this plant use for malaria in Damot Woyde district. Giday etal. [14] reported for headache treatment in Sheko and for evil eye Wubetu [37]. Coffeearabica L. was the most frequently used plant for headaches and wound in the present study. These ndings also agreed with the study conducted in the Sheko district [14] and Guba Lafto district [38]. The plant in the present study for the treatment of wounds is reported for the rst time.
Capsicum annuum L. and Capsicum frutescens L. were the most commonly used medicinal plants as a treatment for headache in the present study. Similar ndings for Sheko people showed that the plants were reported to treat headache [14]. Aloe vera was reported in the present study for the treatment of malaria, diabetes, and wound. The previous studies conducted in other areas mentioned the use of Aloe spp. for cold and malaria treatment in Kembata [18] and Damot Woyde district [12].
Zingiber o cinale and Rhamnus prinoides was the most frequently used plant and reported to be used against tonsillitis and cough in our study. Similarly, Chama [12] mentioned these plants are used for tonsillitis and cough. Triticumdicoccon (Schrank) Schübl, Linumusitatissimum L. and Hordeumvulgare L. were used to treat bone fractures; weight gain, liver disease, and bone strength in the present study, whereas it is used for similar purpose in other study areas [20].
Moringa stenopetala (Bakerf.) Cufod was documented for amoeba, hypertension, malaria, asthma treatment in the current study. Hailemariam et al. [16] and Tefera and Kim [20] reported this plant use for similar health problems from Konta special woreda and Hawassa zuria district, respectively.
Citrus aurantiifolia (Christm.) Swingle, Datura stramonium L. and Dovyalis abyssinica (A. Rich.), were reported for the rst time to be used for toothache treatment in the present study. However, Citrus aurantiifolia (Christ) was mentioned by Tefera and Kim [20] for their area of study in order to treat gastritis and hypertension. Soni etal.
[41] indicated the treatment of stomach and intestinal pain that results from worm infestation, toothache, and fever from in ammation by using Datura stramonium L. Tuasha et al. [21] reported Dovyalis abyssinica (A. Rich.) for treat of malignancies in Dalle district.
Nigella sativa L. was used for stomachache in the present study. Similarly, this plant was reported for stomachache and headache in Hawassa city [19]. Others reported it for common cold, asthma, leprosy, and streptothricosis Artemisia abyssinica Sch. Bip. ex. Rich and Ruta chalepensis L. were the most frequently used plant for evil eye and stomachache in the present study. This nding agrees with the nding of Chama [12] and disagrees with the nding of Giday etal. [14] conducted in other areas which stated the plant use for headache and cold.
According to the comparison of our ndings with others ethnobotanical studies in Ethiopia, novel plant uses of some medicinal plants were documented. Commelina benghalensis L., Manihotesculenta Crantz., Pentas spp., Persea americana Mill., Solanummacrocarpon L., Sorghumbicolor (L.) Moench and Spilanthesmauritiana DC. were completely novel use in our study area and never ever reported in other similar investigations. The pharmacological activities of these plants are novel ndings that are only known in this area for such medicinal purposes.

Dosages of herbal remedies
There is no standardization of the dosage of herbal remedies in the study area; the sum depends on the herbalist who prepares the herbs for medicine. The same plant species with a speci c part are recommended in different doses for the treatment of related conditions. Various reports consider the lack of standardization and quality control one of the key disadvantages of traditional medicine. There remains no consensus among informants on the doses and inadequate dosage accuracy of certain prescription remedies [14].
Several authors recall that a restriction on traditional medicinal plants is the lack of an appropriate dosage for a speci c disease. The dosage also varies between the plants [45] [46]. The toxicity and harm potential of some medicinal plants are a common concern for people who want standardization in conventional medicine. Traditional practitioners are usually believed to either disregard the strengths of the drugs themselves or to not bother to match doses to patients' size or bodyweight [47]. However, some traditional healers are known to prescribe various dosages and frequencies according to age, gender, and other conditions or to vary from one medicine to the other.

Medicinal plants trade and cultivation
Commercialization and marketing of medicinal plants shall take place on the market on a weekly or biweekly. The fresh and dried collections of some plants is sold were Artemisia afra, Ruta chalepensis, Linum usitatissimum L., Lippia adoensis Hochst., Ocimumgratissimum L., Triticum dicoccon (Schrank) Schübl, Hordeum vulgare L., Avena sativa L. and all Capsicum spps. In addition, parts of different medicinal plants are also marketed for their medicinal value (Allium sativum, Lepidium sativum, Nigella sativa, and Zingiber o cinale Rosc). Drugs using indigenous medicine are the cheapest and mostly the only available form of healthcare in rural areas of Ethiopia. Friends, relatives, and neighbors provide traditional treatment free of charge or paid under more exible arrangements, such as payment in cash or kind and on a credit basis. This is particularly prevalent in rural communities.
Plants are not grown for medicinal purposes, with the exception of the rare cases where certain food crops of medicinal value are grown. This is because the quantity of medicinal plants traded is very small and there is no coordination of large-scale added value and production. Therefore, in the future, there is a potential for higher demand for certain species and it is therefore important to recognize them and to conduct the necessary investigations into the techniques of propagation and cultivation. Such a program will also be the basis for small enterprises to improve the potential to generate local population income.

Conclusion
The results of the research showed that medicinal plants are highly diverse in the Diguna Fango area. Fifty medicinal plant species have been identi ed in 28 human and animal diseases. There have been documented 50 medicinal plant species for 28 human and livestock diseases. It is concluded that to prevent different human and livestock ailments, local people rely on indigenous knowledge. Stomachache, malaria, toothache, cough, tonsillitis were common in human diseases, while wounds and cough were common in livestock. Major differences of knowledge between the different age groups were identi ed in the eld. The older illiterate informants over 45 years of age were more knowledgeable than young informants under 25 years of age on average.

Rhizome Tonsillitis
The fresh rhizome is crushed and chewed.
Key: Local name: A = Amharic, W = Wolaita; Used to treat: H = human, L = livestock, HL = human and livestock. Enjera is a kind of unleavened at and thin bread made of 'tef' Eragrostis tef (Zucc.).