This study was carried out through contact with producers during a survey period. The technology for the ethnic artisan bread production is presented in Fig. 2. The production technology of ethnic artisan bread was carried out by kneading. This was followed by a pre-fermentation (punching) which lasted forty (40) to sixty (60) minutes. The manual shaping of the dough pieces was carried out using a table. The artisan dough pieces obtained were packed in nets. They were then placed on a raised support in a relatively ventilated room at room temperature (priming) for 1 to 2 hours. Scarification and baking of the ethnic artisan bread was carried out successively in a short time.
For this purpose, a questionnaire was drawn up to collect information on the composition of ethnic artisan bread dough. Table 2 presents the results of the survey carried out among five ethnic artisan bread producers.
. The bakers were all male between 22 and 34 years old with an average age of 27.8 ± 5.1 years. They all used wheat flour mainly (80%) from the Grand Moulin du Faso (GMF). For the fermentation of the baker's dough carried out at room temperature, they use baker's dry or lyophilized yeasts. No chemical additives were used during the process.
The bread-making quality of the dough was determined by evaluating the characteristics of the bread dough and ethnic artisan bread are presented in Table 2.
Tab. 2 Characteristics of bread dough and ethnic artisan bread
Characteristics
|
UPY
|
UPB
|
UPS
|
UPW
|
UPZ
|
Average
|
Dough weight (g)
|
102,0
|
98,0
|
101,0
|
105,0
|
108,0
|
102,8±3,8
|
Dough temperature (°C)
|
35,7
|
36,3
|
35,8
|
35,9
|
36,5
|
36,0±0,3
|
Pre-fermentation (min)
|
45,0
|
50,0
|
70,0
|
55,0
|
47,0
|
53,4±10,0
|
Fermentation (min)
|
30,0
|
45,0
|
32,0
|
34,0
|
38,0
|
35,8±5,9
|
Flour quantity daily used/ (kg)
|
50,0
|
25,0
|
50,0
|
50,0
|
30,0
|
41,0±12,4
|
Smoothing (1 to 10*)
|
4,0
|
7,0
|
4,0
|
7,0
|
7,0
|
5,8±1,6
|
Consistency (1 to 10*)
|
7,0
|
4,0
|
7,0
|
7,0
|
4,0
|
5,8±1,6
|
Tights (1 to 10*)
|
10,0
|
7,0
|
10,0
|
7,0
|
10,0
|
8,8±1,6
|
Extensibility (1 to 10*)
|
7,0
|
7,0
|
7,0
|
7,0
|
7,0
|
7,0±0,0
|
Elasticity (1 to 10*)
|
10,0
|
10,0
|
10,0
|
10,0
|
10,0
|
10,0±0,0
|
Weight of bread (g)
|
80,2
|
82,1
|
80,1
|
77,5
|
76,1
|
79,2±2,4
|
Bread quantity
|
203,0
|
220,0
|
205,0
|
196,0
|
208,0
|
206,4±8,8
|
Baguette price (FCFA)
|
50,0
|
50,0
|
50,0
|
50,0
|
50,0
|
50,0±0,0
|
Cost de production (FCFA)
|
10150
|
11000
|
10250
|
9800
|
10400
|
10320,0±439,6
|
Legend: UPY: Yagma Production Unit; UPB: Bissigui Production Unit; UPS: Saaba Production Unit; UPW: Wamtenga Production Unit; UPZ: Zongo Production Unit; 1=Poor ; 4=Passable ; 7=Good ; 10=Very Good
Production of ethnic artisan bread
The formulation consisted of adjusting the composition of the flour, the ingredients necessary to meet not only the technology of the bread but also the nutritional and organoleptic needs of the consumer. The dough was obtained by kneading a mixture of flour, water and salt and subjected to fermentation by yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. It was kneaded well to homogenize and soften the gluten. The dough was incubated for a minimum of 45 minutes before shaping; then 1 to 2 hours for the second fermentation. The fermented dough was baked in artisan oven. The evolution of the fermenting dough during the production of ethnic artisan bread in Fig. 3.
Figure 4 shows the stages of ethnic artisan bread production.
Microbiological characteristics of ethnic artisan bread doughs
The table 3 gives the results of the enumeration of the flora of beneficial interest (yeasts, lactic acid bacteria) of the five ethnic artisan bread production units.
Tab. 3 Microbiological characteristics of ethnic artisan bread dough
Microorganisms
|
UPY
|
UPB
|
UPS
|
UPW
|
UPZ
|
Assessment criteria
|
Yeasts (UFC/g)
|
2,28.108
|
2,65.108
|
2,53.108
|
2,54.108
|
2,50.108
|
103( NF V08-59)7
|
LAB (UFC/g)
|
7,27.107
|
5,36.107
|
<103
|
5,27.107
|
4,91.107
|
103 (NF ISO 15214)8
|
Legend: UPY: Yagma production unit ; UPB: Bissigui production unit ; UPS: Saaba production unit ; UPW: Wamtenga production unit ; UPZ: Zongo production unit ; LAB: Lactic acid bacteria
In general, all microbial flora is present in all samples. The average yeast population is 2.50.108. CFU/g for ethnic artisan bread doughs from Ouagadougou and Saaba (Tab. 3). These yeast contents are similar to those of the crushed wheat sourdough (1.5.108 CFU/g) reported by Taupier-Létage et al. [16]. The yeast strains of artisan doughs are higher than those of commercial liquid sourdough (1.37.107 CFU/g) and industrial sourdough (3.6.107 CFU/g), reported by Taupier-Létage et al. [16]. The lactic acid bacteria, through their carbohydrate metabolism, cause the acidification of the dough, which thus becomes favorable to the development of yeast. This symbiosis during dough fermentation has also been reported by Bokossa et al. [17] on ablo, a fermented dough from Benin. Saccharomyces cerevisiae are responsible for the production of alcohol (fermentation) [18]. According to Taupier-Létage et al. [16], this average value (2.50 108 CFU/g) of yeast explains a better application of ethnic artisan bread production processes.
In general, lactic acid bacteria are present in all samples except for a small amount in the saaba paste. The average lactic acid bacteria population is 5.70 107 CFU/g. This flora of artisan dough is higher than that of white maize flour (1.2 x 107 CFU/g) found by Coulibaly et al. [19]. These values are lower than those of liquid sourdough and crushed sourdough (1.6 x 109 and 1.7 x 109 respectively) reported by Taupier-Létage et al. [16]. In the same perspective, Ennadir et al. [20] showed that the enumeration of lactic acid bacteria from Moroccan wheat flour showed low values in the majority of samples. On the other hand, the absence of Lactic Acid Bacteria can be considered by fungal contamination. However, the doughs of the ethnic artisan bread s showed a lower bacterial flora than that of the yeast. This shows the dose of Saccharomyces cerevisiae yeast during this production period. These lactic acid bacteria are responsible for the production of a specific aroma, while Saccharomyces cerevisiae are responsible for the production of alcohol (fermentation) [18]. Apart from the Saaba bread dough which has a low lactic acid bacterial load, all samples are abundant in yeast (2.5 108 CFU/g) and lactic acid bacteria (5.7 107 CFU/g). Indeed, the production process of this ethnic artisan bread requires sufficient time (at least 3 hours).
Proximal composition and energy value of ethnic artisan bread
Ash, moisture, protein, fat, carbohydrate and energy content of the 5 samples from each production unit are presented in Table 4.
Tab. 4 Proximal composition and energy value of ethnic artisan bread
Samples
|
Ash (%)
|
Moisture (%)
|
Protein (%)
|
Lipid (%)
|
Sugars(%)
|
Energy value
|
UPY
|
0,550±0,04b
|
29,840± 2,38a
|
10,600±0,10c
|
0,647±0,04c
|
88,202± 0,02a
|
401,04± 0,04c
|
UPW
|
0,457± 0,02ab
|
32,947± 0,05ab
|
10,367±0,05 bc
|
0,540±0,01b
|
88,598± 0,07b
|
400,87± 0,15c
|
UPZ
|
0,480± 0,04ab
|
35,537±1,03b
|
9,800±0,3a
|
0,667±0,01c
|
89,050± 0,32c
|
401,43± 0,23d
|
UPS
|
0,360±0,00a
|
33,330± 3,00ab
|
10,200± 0,10b
|
0,380±0,01a
|
88,981± 0,08bc
|
400,355± 0,06b
|
UPB
|
0,446±0,00a
|
33,178± 0,83ab
|
10,320± 0,00b
|
0,310±0,01a
|
88,909± 0,00c
|
399,365± 0,07a
|
P-value
|
0,112
|
0,280
|
0,001
|
0,0001
|
0,0001
|
0,0001
|
Legend: UPY: Yagma Production Unit; UPB: Bissigui Production Unit; UPS: Saaba Production Unit; UPW: Wamtenga Production Unit; UPZ: Zongo Production Unit; P: probability threshold ; Columns with the same letter mean that there is no significant difference according to the Fisher test at the 5% threshold.
The water content of artisan Ouagadougou bread (PTO) was determined in the course of this work. These breads had water content ranging from 29.84% to 36.08% (Table 4). The water contents of the ethnic artisan bread s are similar to those of the Benin ablo (32.77-39.90%) reported by Bokossa et al. [17]. They are close to those of ablo with fermented dough (39.73%) reported by Dossou et al. [28] and ablo in Togo (39.47%) reported by Bokossa et al. [17]. The dry matter content (DMC) of ethnic artisan bread is higher than that of fermented dough bread (24.55%) and Algerian semolina (20.68%) reported by Guendouze-Bouchefa et al. [21]. It is also higher than that of lafu cassava bread (10.10) reported by Bessou et al. [22]. ANOVA analyzes showed that there was a significant difference between the moisture content of the ethnic artisan bread s harvested. However, there was no significant difference between the moisture content of PTY, PTB and PTW. In general, dry matter content, pH and ash content decreased after fermentation and increased after baking [23].
The ash content of the ethnic artisan bread was determined during the analyses (Table 4). The breads showed ash contents ranging from 0.36-0.52 %. These contents are lower than the FAO [1] and AOAC (1999) [24] foodstuff contents as well as those of the Benin ablo (2.09-2.15%) reported by Bokossa et al. [17]. In contrast, 40% of the samples (PTY, PTB) are similar to standard bread and artisan French bread (0.5-0.6%) reported by Choudar et al. [25]. They are also similar to organic breads (0.58%) reported by Taupier-Létage et al. [16]. The ash contents of ethnic artisan breads from Yagma and Bissigui are close to that of fermented bread (0.69), but lower than that of the doughnut (0.96) reported by Soro et al. [23]. The analysis of variance shows that there is a significant difference between the ash content of different breads. According to Koffi et al. [26], the ash content of ethnic artisan bread decreases after fermentation and increases after baking. Ethnic artisan bread s could be used in the dietary program to meet the body's micronutrient requirements especially in children and pregnant women [27].
The protein content of ethnic artisan bread s ranged from 9.8% to 10.6% (Table 4). It is similar to that of ablo fermented bread (10.24) reported by Dossou et al. [28]. The protein contents of ethnic artisan bread s are also higher than those of ablo bread (7%) and lafu bread (5.4) reported by Dossou et al. [28] and Bokossa et al. [17] respectively. These contents are lower than that of wheat flour type 55 (13.3%) reported by Mofakkir [29]. But they are similar to that of unfermented bread (PNF) (9.2%) reported by Guendouze-Bouchefa et al. [21]. The protein and sugar composition of the flour was an important effect in bread production (Tab. 2). Proteins have very important biological roles. Therefore, we can offer ethnic artisan bread to vulnerable people. Given the protein content of all cereal products in general, we can therefore propose to the population to consume ethnic artisan bread with protein-rich foods in order to avoid protein deficiency diseases such as marasmus and kwashiorkor.
The lipid contents of ethnic artisan bread s are between 0.28 and 0.67% (Table 4). This lipid content is lower than that of flour (2.1%) reported by Mofakkir [29] and that of rice ablo (1.5%) in Benin reported by Bokossa et al. [17]. It was similar to that of maize ablo (0.79%) in Benin reported by Bokossa et al. [17] and that of iron-fortified bread (0.35%) from Algeria reported by Guendouze-Bouchefa et al. [21]. According to the analysis of variance, there is no significant difference between the lipid levels of ethnic artisan bread s. On the other hand, there is no significant difference between the lipid content of PTY and PTZ. Ethnic artisan bread could be consumed with some lipid-rich foods (grubs, locusts, butter, skewers etc.) to enhance its energy value.
The carbohydrate content of the ethnic artisan bread s varied between 88.20 and 89.05% (Table 4). This content is higher than that of the 15% composite bread (79.34%) and the 20% composite bread (74.14%) reported by Meite et al. [30]. On the other hand, this content is similar to that of normal bread (86.66%) and 5% composite bread (84.91%) measured by Adrian [31]. The analysis of variance showed that there was no significant difference between the carbohydrate content of the samples.
The energy value of the ethnic artisan bread s varied from 399.36 to 401.43 kcal/100g dry matter (Table 4). This value is lower than the value of the normal bread and the composite bread of Abidjan whose energy values are respectively 405.92 kcal/100g and 404.17 kcal/100g reported by Meite et al. [30]. The analysis of variance showed that there was no significant difference between the energy values of the ethnic artisan bread samples. The ethnic artisan bread s of Ouagadougou and Saaba, because of their high energy value, are desired for the diet of pregnant women and children.
Mineral composition of ethnic artisan bread
The mineral composition of ethnic artisan bread from the five production units is presented in table 5. The calcium content of ethnic artisan bread s was between 89.90 to 292.61 mg / kg with an average of 172.74 mg / kg (Tab. 5). The calcium contents of ethnic artisan bread were lower than those of organic bread (254.4 mg / kg) reported by Taupier-Létage et al. [16]. However, they are superior to those of bread from organic flour T55 (150 mg / kg). They are also lower than those of T80 cylinder bread. But only the calcium content of the sample of artisan Yagma bread (PTY) is similar to that of millstone flour (288.7) and artisan pre-fermented wheat bread (289.8). Analysis of variance showed that there is a significant difference between the levels of Calcium. Calcium is an essential element in the multiplication and growth of yeasts. The deficiency in mineral salts (calcium, potassium, sodium) or in trace elements (zinc, iron) reduces the fermentative power. Mineral salts stimulate yeast growth and are essential constituents of enzyme systems [3]. Ethnic artisan bread could be recommended and served to vulnerable people.
The zinc content of ethnic artisan bread s varied from 11.56 to 89.27 mg / kg with an average of 61.81 mg / kg (Tab. 5). This content is similar to that reported by Taupier-Létage et al. (2007) [16]. The mean zinc content of ethnic artisan bread is also similar to that of sourdough bread (64 mg / kg) reported by Taupier-Létage et al. [16]. Analysis of variance shows that there is a significant difference between the zinc contents. Ethnic artisan bread s could be used as a food ration to meet the body's demand for mineral salts.
At the end of the analyzes, the iron content of ethnic artisan bread ranged from 69.18 ± 36.74 to 389.10 ± 32.89 mg / kg with an average of 145.71 mg / kg. These contents are lower than the contents of Ablo (320.5) and fermented dough bread (290.3) reported by Bokossa et al. [17] (Tab. 5). These values are lower than that reported by Bokossa et al. [17]. The iron contents of ethnic artisan bread s are, however, higher than those of type 55 flour (12 mg / kg) reported by Taupier-Létage et al. [16]. Analysis of variance showed that there is a significant difference between the iron contents. Iron is the essential constituent of hemoglobin in red blood cells, myoglobin in muscles and certain enzymes such as cytochromes [31,32]. Consumption of ethnic artisan bread constitutes a significant gain for pregnant women and infants.