Demographic characteristics of participants by drinking type
Table 1. Demographic characteristics of participants by drinking type
|
|
N
|
Non/light
(n=589)
%
|
Solitary
(n=486)
%
|
Social
(n=1,940)
%
|
X2
|
|
Gender
|
Men
|
1546(100.0)
|
15.8
|
17.5
|
66.8
|
43.21***
|
Women
|
1469(100.0)
|
23.5
|
14.7
|
61.8
|
|
Age (years)
|
19–29
|
670(100.0)
|
24.5
|
11.5
|
64.0
|
43.21***
|
30–39
|
670(100.0)
|
23.3
|
18.5
|
58.2
|
|
40–49
|
797(100.0)
|
17.4
|
16.9
|
65.6
|
|
50–60
|
878(100.0)
|
14.8
|
17.1
|
68.1
|
|
Marital status
|
Never married
|
1238(100.0)
|
24.3
|
16.6
|
59.0
|
44.01***
|
Married
|
1672(100.0)
|
16.3
|
15.1
|
68.7
|
|
Divorced/widowed
|
105(100.0)
|
15.2
|
26.7
|
58.1
|
|
Education
|
Senior high school
|
617(100.0)
|
23.3
|
16.9
|
59.8
|
14.71*
|
2-year college
|
498(100.0)
|
20.9
|
15.7
|
63.5
|
|
4-year college
|
1576(100.0)
|
18.1
|
16.7
|
65.2
|
|
Graduate school
|
324(100.0)
|
17.0
|
12.7
|
70.4
|
|
Monthly Income (USD)
|
Up to $1700
|
289(100.0)
|
26.0
|
24.2
|
49.8
|
62.21***
|
$1700–2500
|
975(100.0)
|
22.9
|
17.8
|
59.3
|
|
$2500–5900
|
1193(100.0)
|
17.0
|
14.7
|
68.3
|
|
$5901 or more
|
558(100.0)
|
15.8
|
12.0
|
72.2
|
|
Job status
|
Employed
|
1772(100.0)
|
17.4
|
15.1
|
67.5
|
42.01***
|
Temporarily employed
|
332(100.0)
|
21.1
|
17.5
|
61.4
|
|
Self-employed
|
268(100.0)
|
14.9
|
23.5
|
61.6
|
|
Unemployed
|
643(100.0)
|
26.6
|
15.1
|
58.3
|
|
|
Professionals
|
1614(100.0)
|
17.6
|
15.1
|
67.3
|
66.65***
|
Occupation
|
Management, business, and financial
|
209(100.0)
|
10.5
|
13.4
|
76.1
|
|
|
Service/Sales
|
212(100.0)
|
23.6
|
19.3
|
57.1
|
|
|
Production/Transportation
|
66(100.0)
|
22.7
|
18.2
|
59.1
|
|
|
Self-employed
|
190(100.0)
|
13.2
|
26.3
|
60.5
|
|
|
Unemployed
|
724(100.0)
|
26.7
|
15.5
|
57.9
|
|
|
Total
|
|
3015(100.0)
|
19.5
|
16.1
|
64.3
|
|
|
Note: *p<.05, **p<.01, ***p<.001
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Social Norms By Drinking Type
Table 2 shows that social norms regarding drinking differ by drinking type. Social norms for drinking shape common attitudes, perceptions, and behaviors. Except for two statements, solitary drinkers agreed with the statements more often than social drinkers.
Table 2
Social drinking norms by drinking type (% of agreement) (N = 3,015)
| Non/light (n = 589) % | Solitary (n = 486) % | Social (n = 1,940) % | Total (N = 3,015) % | XMH2 |
It is acceptable to drink in a park or on a mountain after hiking. | 8.1 | 12.3 | 10.4 | 10.3 | 23.3*** |
It is acceptable to drink during the day. | 25.1 | 37.0 | 31.5 | 31.1 | 63.9*** |
It is acceptable to get drunk. | 25.0 | 42.6 | 37.9 | 36.2 | 85.4*** |
It is acceptable for high school students to drink. | 3.7 | 4.1 | 4.4 | 4.2 | 13.1* |
It is acceptable to drink alone. | 61.1 | 85.2 | 69.1 | 70.1 | 91.2*** |
Wrongdoing (or crimes) committed while drunk can be forgiven. | 0.8 | 1.6 | 1.6 | 1.5 | 7.7 |
It is discourteous to refuse a drink offered by someone else. | 5.8 | 7.4 | 7.4 | 7.1 | 7.6 |
It is acceptable to drink in a convenience store. | 24.6 | 38.1 | 35.2 | 33.6 | 52.5*** |
Mean (SD) | 2.33 (0.61) | 2.67 (0.49) | 2.56 (0.51) | 2.53 (0.54) | F = 61.0*** |
Note: *p < .05, **p < .01, ***p < .001; XMH2 |
Among drinking behaviors considered acceptable by solitary drinkers, the highest reported percentage was for “drinking alone” (85.2%), followed by “getting drunk” (42.6%), “drinking in a convenience store” (38.1%), and “drinking during the day” (37.0%). Among social drinkers, the highest percentage was also reported for “drinking alone” (69.1%), followed by “getting drunk” (37.9%), “drinking in a convenience store” (35.2%), and “drinking during the day” (31.5%). However, non/light drinkers showed much less agreement with all statements than solitary and social drinkers: The highest percentages were reported for “drinking alone” (61.1%), followed by “drinking during the day” (25.1%), “getting drunk” (25.0%), and “drinking in a convenience store” (24.6%) (see Table 2).
Drinking Motives Between Solitary And Social Drinkers
Only respondents who consumed alcohol at least once or more per month responded to the questions concerning drinking motives. Drinking motives are important factors influencing choices, patterns, and outcomes regarding alcohol. The drinking motives of solitary and social drinkers are presented in Table 3. Solitary drinkers showed more agreement with all statements than did social drinkers. Among solitary drinkers, the main motive was “drinking helps to overcome work and life stress” (57.2%), followed by “I drink to feel good/happy” (51.6%), “alcohol makes food taste better,” (39.3%), and “I want to fall asleep quickly” (37.2%). Among social drinkers, the highest number of participants agreed that “drinking helps to overcome work and life stress” (44.2%), followed by “I drink to feel good and happy” (43.6%), “alcohol makes food taste better” (28.0%), and “I want to get rid of my fears and be brave” (15.7%). In terms of social motives, there were no significant differences between solitary and social drinkers. Concerning environmental motives, solitary drinkers endorsed the following items more than social drinkers did: “many stores sell alcohol,” 66.3% versus 62.5%; “there are many places to drink,” 31.3% versus 25.1%; and “the price of alcohol is low,” 17.5% versus 11.9% (see Table 3).
Table 3
Drinking motives by drinking type (% of agreement) (N = 2,426)
Motives | | Solitary (n = 486) % | Social (n = 1,940) % | XMH2 |
Personal | I drink to feel good/happy. | 51.6 | 43.6 | 14.9*** |
| I drink because there are few things to enjoy except drinking. | 25.7 | 16.9 | 26.0*** |
| I drink because alcohol makes food taste better. | 39.3 | 28.0 | 31.9*** |
| I drink to overcome work and life stress. | 57.2 | 44.2 | 3.2 |
| When I cannot fall asleep easily, I drink because I want to fall asleep quickly. | 37.2 | 15.7 | 134.7*** |
| I drink when I want to get rid of my fears and be brave. | 25.3 | 19.7 | 11.9** |
| Mean (SD) | 3.04(0.03) | 2.71(0.02) | F = 3.83*** |
Social | I drink with others to become friends quickly and to get along with them. | 57.2 | 57.3 | 2.1 |
| I drink to deal with difficult relationships. | 50.8 | 48.4 | 0.9 |
| I drink a lot because of work-related gatherings. | 21.0 | 23.6 | 3.2 |
| Mean (SD) | 3.15(0.03) | 3.12(0.02) | F = 0.35 |
Environmental | I drink to enjoy low-cost recreation because the price of alcohol is low. | 17.5 | 11.9 | 18.8*** |
| I drink because there are many stores where I can buy alcoholic beverages anytime. | 66.3 | 62.5 | 4.5 |
| I drink because there are many places to drink everywhere. | 31.3 | 25.1 | 8.8* |
| Mean (SD) | 3.03(0.03) | 2.87(0.02) | F = 16.75*** |
Note: *p < .05, **p < .01, ***p < .001; Questions about drinking motives were only asked of participants who consumed alcohol at least once per month. |
Drinking frequency (number), alcohol consumption amount, and alcohol-related harm/troubles between solitary and social drinkers
We assessed the drinking frequency (number) and alcohol amount for solitary and social drinkers. A MANCOVA, with gender as a covariate, was used to compare social and solitary drinkers in terms of frequency of drinking occasions per month and alcohol consumption per week. The means of drinking frequency for solitary and social drinkers were 6.1 and 3.6 per month, respectively (F = 131.94, p < .001, η2 = .098). The mean consumption of pure alcohol (ethanol) per week was 69.5 g and 46.8 g, respectively (F = 160.52 p < .001, η2 = .117). Solitary drinkers drank more frequently than social drinkers, and they consumed significantly more alcohol. The pattern of solitary drinking behavior is likely to be predictive of high alcohol consumption (see Table 4).
Table 4
Frequency of drinking occasions (number), alcohol consumption, and alcohol-related problems (g) (N = 2,426)
| Solitary (n = 486) | Social (n = 1,940) | Total (N = 2,426) | |
| M | (SD) | M | (SD) | M | (SD) | F (η2) |
Frequency of drinking occasions per month (number) | 6.14 | (5.46) | 3.65 | (3.92) | 4.15 | (4.39) | 131.94***(0.098) |
Amount of alcohol consumption per week (g) | 69.54 | (89.39) | 46.82 | (25.74) | 41.3 | (78.79) | 160.52***(0.117) |
| n | % | n | % | N | % | XMH2 (p) |
Legal trouble related to my drinking and driving | 7 | 1.4 | 16 | 0.8 | 23 | 0.9 | 1.57(.210) |
Harmful effects on my work | 105 | 21.6 | 420 | 21.6 | 525 | 21.6 | 0.00(.983) |
Getting into fights while drinking | 59 | 12.1 | 197 | 10.2 | 256 | 10.6 | 1.62(.203) |
Destroying property | 12 | 2.5 | 25 | 1.3 | 37 | 1.5 | 3.61(.058) |
Injury during work or daily life | 14 | 2.9 | 55 | 2.8 | 69 | 2.8 | 0.00(.957) |
Sexual harassment/unwanted sexual behavior | 8 | 1.6 | 42 | 2.2 | 50 | 2.1 | 0.52(0.472) |
Blacking out | 138 | 28.4 | 505 | 26.0 | 643 | 26.5 | 1.12(.291) |
Note: The frequency of drinking occasions per month and degree of alcohol consumption per week were square-root-transformed prior to the analyses. Means and standard deviations shown are for the untransformed variables. Univariate test results reported are from Analyses of Covariance (ANCOVA). Gender was controlled for in all analyses. η2 = effect size (eta squared); ***p < .001 |
There were no significant differences in alcohol-related harms or troubles between solitary and social drinkers. For both groups, the biggest problem was “blacking out” (28.4% for solitary vs. 26.0% for social), followed by “having trouble with work” (21.6% for both), and “having a fight while drinking” (12.1 vs. 10.2%).
Factors associated with drinking frequency and alcohol amount between solitary and social drinkers
A hierarchical regression analysis was conducted to determine factors associated with drinking frequency and alcohol amount of solitary vs. social drinkers (see Table 5). In the first step, socio-demographic variables (gender, marital status, education status, and household) and dependent variables (drinking frequency and alcohol consumption amount) were entered into the model. In the second step, four variables (drinking norms; personal, social, and environmental motives) were entered into the model.
Table 5
Factors associated with drinking frequency and alcohol amount
| Solitary Drinker (n = 486) | | Social Drinker (n = 1,940) |
| Frequency | Alcohol consumption amount | Frequency | Alcohol consumption amount |
| R2 | ß | SE ß | R2 | ß | SE ß | R2 | ß | SE ß | R2 | ß | SE ß |
Demographic variables | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Gender | .09*** | 0.16*** | 0.47 | .10*** | 0.16*** | 0.10 | .06*** | 0.15*** | 0.17 | .08*** | 0.16*** | 0.10 |
Marital status | | 0.06 | 0.47 | | 0.06 | 0.10 | | 0.04 | 0.18 | | 0.02 | 0.10 |
Education status | | 0.10* | 0.26 | | 0.11* | 0.05 | | -0.04 | 0.09 | | -0.04* | 0.05 |
Job | | -0.02 | 0.59 | | -0.05 | 0.12 | | -0.08*** | 0.21 | | -0.08 | 0.12 |
Household income | | 0.05 | 0.27 | | 0.06 | 0.06 | | 0.04* | 0.10 | | 0.05 | 0.06 |
Attitude variables | .22*** | | | .26*** | | | 0.19*** | | | 0.24*** | | |
Drinking norms | | 0.03 | 0.52 | | 0.04 | 0.11 | | 0.09*** | 0.18 | | 0.09 | 0.11 |
Personal motives | | 0.42*** | 0.48 | | 0.43*** | 0.10 | | 0.30*** | 0.17 | | 0.33*** | 0.10 |
Social motives | | -0.09 | 0.42 | | -0.05 | 0.09 | | 0.02 | 0.15 | | 0.04 | 0.09 |
Environmental motives | | -0.02 | 0.38 | | -0.03 | 0.08 | | -0.01 | 0.14 | | -0.01 | 0.08 |
Note: Gender (men = 1, women = 0), Marital status (married = 1, single/divorced/widow = 0), Job (No job = 1, Had a job = 0) |
Regarding drinking frequency, gender, education, and personal drinking motives were significant for solitary drinkers (R2 = .22, p < .001), while gender, job status, household income, drinking norms, and personal drinking motives were significant for social drinkers (R2 = .19, p < .001). Regarding alcohol consumption amount, gender, education, and personal drinking motives were significant for solitary drinkers (R2 = .26, p < .001), while gender, job status, household income, drinking norms, and personal drinking motives were significant for social drinkers (R2 = .24, p < .001).
The variables of job status, household income, and drinking norms were significantly associated with drinking frequency only for social drinkers, not for solitary drinkers. Education was significantly associated with drinking frequency and consumption amount for solitary drinkers. For social drinkers, education was related to drinking consumption amount but not drinking frequency. The regression analysis revealed that personal motives for drinking were the most important factor of drinking frequency and consumption for both solitary and social drinkers, while other drinking motives were not (see Table 5).