In Northern Nigeria, distrust jeopardizes the coronavirus response. On April 11, 2020, after World Health Organisation (WHO) declared the Covid-19 pandemic, Kano State confirmed its first positive Covid-19 case. In the same month, the state witnessed what was described as mysterious deaths, claiming hundreds of lives. Many people in the state believe that Covid-19 is a scam and a grand plot vaccine to reduce population and the government is using it to generate money, which made them rebuff the Covid-19 vaccine. In a state like Kano which was once the epicenter of the disease in Northern Nigeria, the resistance to the Covid-19 vaccine in the state pause a great danger in the fight against the Covid-19 pandemic. Within this context, this study examined information-seeking behavior on the Covid-19 vaccine among residents of the Fagge Local Government Area of Kano State. The study adopts the positivist approach of research design where a survey was used to generate data using a questionnaire. Simple random sampling was used to select the respondents using Taro Yamane’s formula to arrive at a sample size of 400. Based on the findings, the data indicates that social media constitute the major source of information for the Covid-19 vaccine in Fagge local government. The majority of the respondents in Fagge LGA are not satisfied with the information received on the Covid-19 vaccine. The data also indicates that the outcome of information-seeking behavior on the Covid-19 vaccine in Fagge LGA is significantly discouraging. The study concludes that the Health Believe Model can suitably be used and applied in the cases of contextualizing public behavior as regard to their information-seeking behavior using media messages towards the vaccine. This will greatly help in evaluating the implications of the public information-seeking behavior towards the Covid-19 vaccine.
Research Article
Information Seeking Behavior on Covid-19 Vaccine among Residents of Fagge Local Government Area of Kano, Nigeria
https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-1898209/v1
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Behavior
Covid-19
Fagge LGA
information
and vaccine
It is on record that the first case of Covid-19 in sub-Saharan Africa occurred in the most populous African country, Nigeria on 27th February 2020; the cases rapidly continued in the entire country and Africa as a whole. However, the cases were not as severe as reported in individual countries in Europe, Asia, and the United States of America (Skrip et al., 2020). Nevertheless, Sub-Saharan and other African countries remain vulnerable to Covid-19 morbidity and mortality due to systemic healthcare weaknesses, inadequate financial resources, and infrastructure to address the new crisis, coupled with untreated comorbidities as well as information-seeking behavior through the mass media messages. Similarly, variation in preparedness and response capacity as well as in data availability has raised concerns about undetected transmission, and treatment events (Skrip et al., 2020). Adegboye et al. (2020) state that the early transmission dynamics of coronavirus in Nigeria indicate that during the first 45 days of the Covid-19 outbreak in Nigeria, an estimation was made of the early transmission via time-varying reproduction number based on the Bayesian method that incorporates uncertainty in the distribution of serial interval (time interval between symptoms onset in an infected individual and the infector), and adjusted for disease importation.
In this context, the media have been playing a significant role in the coverage of the pandemic in terms of the messages transmitted for the consumption of the public regarding precaution, advocacy, and campaigns against the disease and awareness creation about the spread of the virus and the associated risks involved in the spread of the disease. In the area of the Covid-19 vaccine, the role of the media in creating content is also fundamental. The general public or the audiences of the media messages, especially from the area of the research focus have various ways of perceiving the messages sent by the media on the Covid-19 vaccine. Therefore, information-seeking behavior among residents of Fagge Local Government Area (LGA) in Kano State of Nigeria contributed significantly to whether to accept or reject the Covid-19 vaccine, and victims of other underlying health conditions (Ahmed & Aondover, 2022).
The mass media as the Fourth Estate of the Realm have a huge responsibility that they owe the societies and communities they represent. As such, the contents they disseminate to the general public on issues affecting society contain both positive and negative consequences on the public and society in general. The general public, however, in perceiving the messages distilled to them by the media from knowledge, attitudes, and practices towards containment, creates mixed reactions and perceptions as well as beliefs among the general public in different countries across the globe, Kano State in particular, and Nigeria in general (Aondover, 2020).
Within this context, this study examined information-seeking behavior among residents of Fagge LGA on the Covid-19 vaccine in Nigeria. The rationale for selecting the study area is due to the complexity, and controversial nature of the Covid-19 vaccine in the area, which the study attempts to close the knowledge gap in the area. It is on record that the media, which are carriers of messages to the public have a great influence on society to the extent that they go beyond reshaping the culture, and practices, or tradition of people, but mass media messages also determine how they are used and the consequences they might pose to those using them subliminally, or otherwise (Aondover & Phillips, 2020).
The motivation of this study and the study area is due to the fundamental ideologies and ideals that need to be understood and handled carefully when it comes to introducing anything that may seem in contrast with those factors, especially in Kano State. These fundamental ideas are the traditional norms and culture as well as the religious belief of the people from the area. For instance, it has been a fierce battle to win the hearts of some people in the North to accept the Polio vaccine because of the religious belief that one only looks for a cure when there is an illness and does not provide prevention before coming to contact with a disease. This belief creates a lot of debate among highly respected scholars of religion in the country and Kano State in particular. Within this context, information-seeking behavior among residents of Fagge LGA is worth investing in considering the danger of Covid-19 in the state.
Motivation of the Study
Efe (2020) observed that the coronavirus is novel to mankind as most government and health professionals across the globe are only employing the reactive strategy by struggling to curb the spread of the disease through various strategies. She observed that governments at all levels in Nigeria are putting efforts to educate the populace on the Covid-19 vaccine to keep them informed and better protected. However, other individuals or groups in Nigeria are the vulnerable set in the society characterized by underdevelopment and limited access to basic amenities that could militate against their access to Covid-19 information (Aminu & Asogba, 2020).). The extent to which Nigerians, especially those that reside in states like Kano can use the information available on the Covid-19 vaccine is presently not known as a result of a lack of sufficient knowledge, and access to media content on the vaccine.
There is also a paucity of studies on Covid-19 information-seeking behavior among residents of Fagge LGA on the vaccine. Within this context, this study examined information-seeking behavior among residents of Fagge LGA. This study examined their preferred information sources on the Covid-19 vaccine, and the use of information on the vaccine among residents in the area. The findings of this study will enable media organizations and the Nigerian government to formulate policies to improve the information-seeking behavior among residents in the state, and other states of the federation at large. The outcome of the study is also fundamental globally as it will help countries and continents, especially, the government to design policies that will improve information-seeking behavior on the Covid-19 vaccine.
The Basic Tools of Scientific Inquiry
Based on the motivation of the study, the following tools of scientific inquiry are set:
- What are the sources of information for the Covid-19 vaccine among residents of Fagge LGA?
- What are the most preferred media for information during and after the introduction of the Covid-19 vaccine in Fagge LGA?
- What is the usefulness of information on the Covid-19 vaccine among residents of Fagge LGA?
The long-term solution to the Covid-19 pandemic, hopefully, will be a globally implemented, safe vaccination program that has broad clinical and socioeconomic benefits (DeRoo, et al 2020). Furthermore, dozens of vaccines have been developed and distributed across the globe for the jabs to be taken accordingly. Some scenarios predict the earliest, widespread availability of a Covid-19 vaccine to be in 2021 and the doses have already started in 2021 as predicted earlier. During the launches of the vaccines before the mass vaccination programmes, it indicated demonstrable careful planning to ensure the readiness of both the general public and the health communities for a Covid-19 vaccine full commencement. This call for information-seeking behavior as there are contradictions regarding the vaccine, as some people in the state are of the view that if one takes the vaccine, one will run mad, others said it is a strategy by the government to reduce the number of population in the state, to mention a few. All these divided opinions on the vaccine has created an important knowledge vacuum in the existing literature, which the current study is conceived.
Statista (2020) carried out a comparative study to determine the areas people need more information on Covid-19. The study covers Germany, the United Kingdom, and the United States. The majority of the respondents indicated they require more information on testing for Covid-19 and Corona, policies for travel, and the vaccine. Clarke et al., (2016) studied health information needs, sources, and barriers of primary care patients. The findings of the study revealed that the most common information needs were information on an illness or medical condition, nutrition, alternative medicines, and new experimental treatment.
Cochrane (2020) remarks that knowing health information sources to trust and which to ignore can be difficult to ascertain a lot of information on many platforms, especially the ones confusing. Sokey and Adisah-Atta (2017) studied the challenges confronting rural dwellers in accessing health information in Shai Osudoku District, Ghana. The findings of the study revealed that the majority of the respondents indicated their preferred health information was family members, followed by healthcare providers, the internet and friends. Simmons et al., (2015) evaluated sources of health information among rural women in Western Kentucky. The findings of the study revealed that the majority of the respondents preferred interpersonal sources for both general (68.1%) and mental health (69.4%) information.
Agyemang-Duah et al., (2020) studied the dynamics of health information-seeking behavior among the elderly with very low incomes in Ghana. The findings of the study revealed inadequate knowledge about the benefits of seeking health information, perceived poor attitude of health workers or healthcare providers, and communication or language problems. Adeyoyin and Oyewusi (2015) studied the needs and utilisation of health information among young adults in Abeokuta, Ogun State, Nigeria. The findings revealed that the majority of the respondents indicated nutrition as their major health information need, followed by diagnosed medical conditions, unwanted pregnancy avoidance, and HIV/AIDS infection. UNICEF (2020) observed that the elderly have other underlining illnesses; hence they require frequent health information and assistance from their younger to run errands and book appointments with a physician to ensure they get all the help they desire in this Covid-19 pandemic era.
Vanderslott (2020) raised the issue of fake news about the Covid-19 vaccine as they can be disseminated by trusted friends, family members, and physicians making it difficult for people to identify, which sources are real and trusted. Murugathas et al. (2020) studied the health information needs and seeking behavior of pregnant women attending antenatal at Jaffna Teaching Hospital. The study found that the non-availability of relevant information and language barriers was identified as the challenges that militate against the use of health information by pregnant women. Ojo (2006) affirmed that a high level of illiteracy, absence of basic infrastructure, and poverty was identified as the militating factors in adopting new media for accessing and using health information.
Dardas, et al (2020) discover that adolescents are more likely to engage in risky health practices related to Covid-19. The reason given is that adolescents’ compliance with infection control measures is a key factor to mitigate the spread of the disease. The study explores the knowledge, attitudes, and practices toward Covid-19 and the correlations among Jordanian adolescents. Through an online cross-sectional survey, a total of 1,054 Jordanian adolescents aged 12–18 completed and returned the survey. Generally, Jordanian adolescents showed a good base of knowledge regarding Covid-19 (regardless of their demographic characteristics) and tended to hold positive attitudes toward the country’s curfew and other protective measures to prevent the spread of the disease.
Similarly, that study found that the majority of adolescents reported that television and social media were their main source of information about Covid-19 prevention protocol messages, while few of them were reported to be receiving such information from their schools. The majority reported practicing effective health-protective behaviors to prevent the spread of Covid-19, which was significantly predicted by their knowledge and attitudes toward these measures. However, there was a relatively small, yet clinically significant, percentage of adolescents who showed poor knowledge of Covid-19, they had negative attitudes toward protective measures, and reported being engaged in risky practices related to infection spread.
Gao et al (2020) in the study used a total of 2136 respondents from 30 provinces or municipalities in China, where they found that the accurate response rate for the knowledge section ranged from 72.7 to 99.5%, and the average was 91.2%. Regarding the attitude section, the percentage of positive attitudes (“strongly agree” and “agree”) ranged from 94.7 to 99.7%, and the average value was 98.0%. The good practices (“always” and “often”) results ranged from 76.1 to 99.5%, and the average value was 96.8%.
Nwagwu and Ajama (2011) studied women’s health information needs and sources in a rural oil community in South-Western Nigeria. The findings revealed that respondents rely on herb hawkers, family members or friends, traditional healers, drug sellers, radio, or television, among others. Momodu (2002) examines the health information needs and seeking behavior of rural Nigerian communities. The findings revealed that rural dwellers use health information to handle the incidence of epidemic outbreaks, identify good treatment options, to explore health facilities. Medlock et al., (2015) studied the health information-seeking behavior of seniors who use the internet. The findings revealed that the internet was used most often for information about symptoms, prognosis, and treatment options. Oluwatuyi (2010) studied the health-seeking behavior of rural dwellers in Ekiti State, Nigeria. The study revealed that the rural dwellers seek health facilities to cater mainly to the ailments affecting their health. The above-reviewed studies have direct bearing on the subject matter as most of the studies also tried to examine the issue of information-seeking behavior on Covid-19 pandemic.
Theoretical Framework
This study is anchored on the Health Belief Model. The emergence of the Covid-19 pandemic presents an unprecedented health communications challenge in the field of communication and media studies. Healthcare providers should reinforce behaviors that limit the spread of the pandemic, including social distancing and remaining in the home whenever possible. Formal communications toolkits may not be prepared in a timely fashion. Community pharmacists can reinforce mitigation behaviors by applying the health belief model (HBM). This part of the study presents an overview of the HBM and how it can be applicable in underpinning it within the context of the study area to be a guide to communication and media studies researchers (Sheppard & Thomas, 2021).
The field of Health Communication has many starting points in its development and one very fundamental, essential starting point entrenched in the communication discipline’s emulation of other social sciences, such as psychology and sociology, which were actively studying the health care system. The communication discipline has a long-standing history of adopting theories and methods from these social sciences, and the move towards adopting the health care context as a topic of study was a natural disciplinary trend.
It has been reported that for a very long period spanning up to seven decades, the Health Belief Model (HBM) has been one of the most widely used conceptual as well as the theoretical framework of the study in health communication and other behavioral research. In the studies relating to the HBM, scholars like Champion and Skinner (2008) posit that the model has been in use since the 1950s both to explain change and maintenance of health-related behaviors and as a guiding conceptual and theoretical framework for the study of health behavior interventions. In the same vein, for the past twenty years, the HBM has been widely expanded, compared to other theoretical frameworks of the study, and it has been used to support interventions to change health behavior among the general public.
Champion and Skinner (2008) review fundamental components of the HBM and examine other psychosocial constructs that further explain relationships within the model. They began with the origins of the HBM and the relationship of the HBM to psychosocial theories. They also discuss issues related to the measurement of HBM constructs. They also cited examples of applications of the HBM in cases such as breast cancer screening and AIDS-prevention behaviors. The applications of the model describe how the HBM has been used to explain these behaviors and also as a basis for interventions. With the current world pandemic of coronavirus, the HBM can suitably be used and applied in the cases of contextualizing public behavior as regard to their information-seeking behavior about media messages towards the vaccine. This will greatly help in evaluating the implications of the public information-seeking behavior toward the Covid-19 vaccine.
This study adopts the positivist approach to data generation. Positivists or Post-positivists hold a deterministic philosophy in which causes (probably) determine the effects or the outcomes. Based on the choice of the research design, a quantitative survey method was employed using a cross-sectional design. In the survey method, cross-sectional design indicates that data of the study is collected at one point in time. Similarly, as there are various forms of survey, this study used the descriptive survey technique. The descriptive survey is used to study the respondents’ opinions, attitudes, beliefs, and behavior towards the Covid-19 vaccine in Fagge LGA of Kano State. Bhattacherjee (2012) supported that survey is an excellent method to collect and measure large data about people, their thoughts, preferences, beliefs, attitudes, or factual information. Considering the population size of this study, the survey was the appropriate method.
The population of this study was the entire people of Fagge local government. Fagge is one of the eight local governments within the Kano metropolitan. It has an area of 21 km2 and shares border with Kano Municipal, Nassarawa, and Dala local government respectively. The local government has ten wards: Fagge A, Fagge B, Fagge C, Fagge D1, Fagge D2, SabonGari West, SabonGari East, Kwachiri, ‘Yan Mata Gabas and RijiyarLemo. According to the census reports of the National Population Commission cited in Ahmed and Aondover (2022), Fagge has 198, 828 population.
A simple random technique was used to select the sample of the study. In this technique, “every respondent has an equal chance of being selected” (Wimmer & Dominick, 2014, p.97). By using a table of random numbers, 400 respondents were randomly sampled using Taro Yamane’s formula, which is: 
where n= sample size required, N = number of people in the population, e = allowable error (%). Therefore, this formula was explained in this manner: 
(rounded). Hence, 400 questionnaires were administered to 10 wards of Fagge local government.
A self-administered questionnaire in the form of a 3-point Likert scale ranging from Agree, Disagree and Neutral was used to collect the respondents’ opinions on information-seeking behavior among residents of Fagge LGA. According to Wimmer and Dominick (2014), Likert-scale or summated rating is the most popularly used questioning technique in mass media research. Furthermore, Bhattacherjee (2012, p.47) added that the “Liker-scale is a very popular rating scale for measuring ordinal data in social science research” which this study delineated. All the questions were structured (close-ended). Similarly, the respondents’ views were analysed using a bar chart, histogram, frequency polygon, ogive, and pie chart. The analysis is limited to 397 respondents, as the three questionnaires were not properly utilised by the respondents. However, the three questionnaires will not in any way affect the study because of their negligible number.
Table 1 examines the sources of information for the Covid-19 vaccine in Fagge LGA. Using the Likert scale of agree, disagree, and neutral as parameters, that data indicates that social media constitute the major sources of information for the Covid-19 vaccine in Fagge LGA, followed by television. Corroborating, Sokey, and Adisah-Atta (2017) studied the challenges confronting rural dwellers in accessing health information in Shai Osudoku District, Ghana. The findings of the study revealed that the majority of the respondents indicated their preferred health information was family members, followed by healthcare providers, the internet, and friends. Simmons et al., (2015) evaluated sources of health information among rural women in Western Kentucky. The findings of the study revealed that the majority of the respondents preferred interpersonal sources for both general (68.1%) and mental health (69.4%) information.
Medlock et al., (2015) studied the health information-seeking behavior of seniors who use the internet. The findings revealed that the internet was used most often for information about symptoms, prognosis, and treatment options. However, the findings of this study differ from the study conducted by Saleh (2011), which stated that there are five sources through which people satisfy their information needs. These are government and its agents, elite groups, relatives and friends, market women, and non-governmental organization.
Table 2 ascertains the satisfaction of information received on the Covid-19 vaccine in Fagge LGA of Kano State. Based on the data, the majority of the respondents in Fagge LGA disagree that they are not satisfied with the information received on Covid-19 in the vaccine. This corroborates the findings of Vanderslott (2020), who raised the issue of fake news about the Covid-19 vaccine as they can be disseminated by trusted friends, family members, and physicians making it difficult for people to identify, which sources are real and trusted. Armed with the theoretical postulation, the HBM can suitably be used and applied in the cases of contextualizing public behavior as regards their information-seeking behavior to media messages towards the vaccine. This will greatly help in evaluating the implications of the public information-seeking behavior toward the Covid-19 vaccine. So, when the theoretical tenets of the HBM are juxtaposed, the theoretical postulations of the model are apt in this study as it will help the media to design messages that address the yearning of the people for the Covid-19 vaccine.
Table 3 finds out the most preferred media for information during and after the introduction of the Covid-19 vaccine in Fagge LGA. The data point out that most of the respondents agree that social media is the most preferred platform for information on the Covid-19 vaccine in the local government. The findings of this study is also in concomitant with the findings of Warner and Procaccino (2004) that in this technologically dominated 21st century, people go online to find out solutions to their health challenges. They maintained most patience interact with doctors through social media to find out potential health problems, and how to diagnose and treated them at the early stage.
Namadi and Aondover (2020) also established that the media such as the radio could be used to enlighten people about their health issues because radio does not require reading ability and it is accessible to the majority of people. Pate et al (2020) affirmed that consumers relied on the traditional form of media, such as radio and television, which involved relatively fewer and more established sources of news. Nowadays consumers are exposed to online sources of information (Internet), the Internet emerged for information dissemination, thereby determining what information is made available as well as the impression people have on issues.
Table 4 examines the outcome of the information seeking behavior on Covid-19 vaccine in Fagge LGA. The data indicate that the outcome of information seeking behavior on Covid-19 vaccine in Fagge LGA is significantly discouraging as most of the respondents disagree. This corroborated the findings of Ahmed and Aondover (2022) that the availability of health information in developing countries is often inadequate, especially in slums and rural areas. Jiyane in Hassan (2020) observed that a number of factors create problems when accessing information by any community, but in particular the peri-urban community. He articulated that most information and access is from the media such as radio, television, books, magazine, posters, health centers, community groups and clubs. Illiteracy, poverty, unemployment and poor infrastructure, hinder rural community to access information in the peri-urban communities. Ojo (2006) affirmed that a high level of illiteracy, absence of basic infrastructure, and poverty were identified as the militating factors in adopting new media for accessing and using health information.
Table 5 investigates the usefulness of information on the Covid-19 vaccine among residents of Fagge LGA. Based on the findings, the information provided on the Covid-19 vaccine is useful among residents in Fagge LGA. Aondover (2020) observed that proper information is fundamental to any health problem. He maintained that the outbreak of Coronavirus known as Covid-19 witnessed a digitalized era of unprecedented campaigns in Nigeria. That the citizens engaged in using social media during the period to sensitize people and to call on the government to help prevent the spread of the virus in the country. The findings of his study revealed that Facebook appears to be among the platform tremendously used by Nigerians to create awareness of Covid-19 in the country. People used social media platforms globally to respond to the threat posed by the coronavirus pandemic, and such information seeking via social media was useful to them.
Aondover (2020) concluded that technological developments in the field of the internet impact the large group of people that uses this media source to obtain health information. Social media is such a new development and has drastically changed websites from a static sources to a many-to-many communication channel. The use of information communication technology especially, social media, has transcended the use of words alone to the creation of images on Covid-19.
Table 6 finds out if the residents believe the information shared by the media on the Covid-19 vaccine. Based on the findings of the study, the respondents disagree that they don’t believe the information shared by the media on the Covid-19 vaccine. Ahmed and Aondover (2022) corroborated that many people in Kano State didn’t believe in the existence of Covid-19 in the state, as many claims that the government is using Covid-19 as an avenue to generate money.
A study by Aondover (2020) discovered that residents in the state believe that Covid-19 will not survive Kano temperature since the state is always hot. This belief contributed to making people not believe in the vaccine. For instance, if the residents feel Covid-19 does not exist, it will be difficult for them to accept the Covid-19 vaccine. Within this context, the HBM is imperative in this context, because the theoretical framework of the study in health communication and other behavioral research is fundamental, especially in the area of creating awareness of a particular health problem.
Murugathas et al. (2020) also found that the non-availability of relevant information and language barriers was identified as the challenges that militate against the use of health information by pregnant women. Champion and Skinner (2008) posit that the model has been in use since the 1950s both to explain change and maintenance of health-related behaviors and as a guiding conceptual and theoretical framework of the study for health behavior interventions.
This study examined information-seeking behavior on the Covid-19 vaccine among residents of Fagge Local Government Area of Kano, Nigeria. Based on the findings, the data indicates that social media constitute the major source of information for the Covid-19 vaccine in Fagge local government. The majority of the respondents in Fagge LGA are not satisfied with the information received on the Covid-19 vaccine. The data also point out that most of the respondents see social media as the most preferred platform for getting information on the Covid-19 vaccine in the local government. The data indicate that the outcome of information-seeking behavior on the Covid-19 vaccine in Fagge LGA is significantly discouraging. The information provided on the Covid-19 vaccine is useful among residents in Fagge LGA, and most of the respondents don’t believe in the information shared by the media on the Covid-19 vaccine. Within this context, HBM can suitably be used and applied in the cases of contextualizing public behavior as regards to their information-seeking behavior to media messages towards the vaccine. This will greatly help in evaluating the implications of the public information-seeking behavior towards the Covid-19 vaccine.
The authors declare that they have no known competing conflict, and financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
Funding
There is no funding to this study
Data Availability Statement (DAS)
The authors confirm that the data supporting the findings of this study are available within the article. The study is a quantitative method whereby data were generated using primary sources and the data can be found in the study.
Compliance with Ethical Standards
This study involves human participants.
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Tables 1 to 6 are available in the Supplementary Files section.