Effect of Cold Metal Transfer Parameters during Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing of Ti6Al4V Multi-layer Walls

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-1946459/v1

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Effect of Cold Metal Transfer Parameters during Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing of Ti6Al4V Multi-layer Walls

https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-1946459/v1

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This study analyzed the effect of process parameters on Ti6Al4V thin walls additively manufactured by cold metal transfer (CMT). An experimental procedure methodology was stablished to develop the process parameters with the most significance on the morphological aspects of the deposits. The maximum working temperature for Ti6Al4V multilayer deposits was defined using differential scanning calorimetry. A difference of 100°C was found between the maximum working temperature of the substrate plate and that of the deposited wall. The experimental results showed overheating above 450°C, which is the maximum recommended working temperature for Ti6Al4V, in the four previous layers during processing. The aspect ratio and metallurgical dilution were compared between single and multi-layer deposits; values of 1.5 and 20%, respectively, were ideal for obtaining continuous thin walls. Furthermore, a continuity factor along the construction walls was defined by 3D measurements, as 1.9 taking into account all deposited layers. In addition, it was observed that the oxygen concentration on the walls rises with increasing power regardless the interpass time used. Finally, microhardness measurements values showed more dispersion as the heat input increased.

Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing

Cold Metal Transfer

Ti6Al4V

process optimization

layer continuity

Additive Manufacturing (AM) defines a family of processes that produce components by successive addition of material, usually layer-by-layer, as opposed to conventional subtractive manufacturing. According to ASTM, AM is classified into seven categories: Binder Jetting, Material Extrusion, Material Jetting, Powder Bed Fusion, Sheet Lamination, Vat Photo-polymerization and Directed Energy Deposition [1]. AM techniques are promising for constructing near net-shape metallic parts [2]. In the last few years, AM of titanium-based alloys was suggested for the fabrication of high-value products in the aerospace, mechanical, and medical industries due to low production cost, and reduction in material waste [3].

Directed energy deposition (DED) processes need a constant wire or metallic powder feedstock flux and a heat source like a laser [4] or electron beam or an electric arc [5]. Wire Arc Additive Manufacture (WAAM) is a DED technique that uses metal wire as a filler material and an electric arc as heat input [6]. WAAM process exhibits a high deposit rate (DR), good energy efficiency, low raw material cost, and non-complex processing [7, 8]. The heat input used by WAAM varies according to the welding system adapted, which can be plasma arc-welding (PAW) [9], gas tungsten arc-welding (GTAW) [10], or gas metal arc-welding (GMAW) [11]. WAAM technologies include a welding torch attached to a computer-controlled robotic arm [12]. The constant wire feed provides high deposit rate which, alongside its processing speed, contributes to the economic and environmental advantages of WAAM techniques [13]. Fronius developed a cold metal transfer (CMT) welding system as an alternative to conventional arc welding technologies. The CMT transfers molten droplets through of mechanical detachment by wire retraction system, resulting in mass and energy transport control [14]. Each CMT cycle contains three principal stages. In the Ignition-phase, the maximum electric current is reached (I_max), stays constant for a given time (tI_max) and the molten drop begins to grow. The electric current intensity (I_w) is reduced to a lower value during Wait-phase prior to the molten drop detachment in the Short-circuit-phase. This electric current reduction diminishes the thermal load into the molten drop, resulting in the given name CMT. Finally, the Short-circuit-phase, the tip of the wire touches the substrate and promotes the release of the molten drop. The whole cycle reboots immediately and repeats 100–150 times-per-second for the standard CMT process [14, 15].

The importance of developing CMT’s parametric synergies for WAAM was reported by Gomez-Ortega et al. [16]. Moreover, the design of experiments (DoE) method offers advantages over non-statistical methods as it decreases the entire amount of experiments required to characterize multivariable processes and find the relationship between process inputs (factors) and output variables (responses) [17, 18]. Suthakar et al. [19] analyzed the relationship between the factors of a laser welding process and the morphological characteristics of a single-layer deposit. Derringer et al. [20] combined the DoE methodology with a multivariable approach to the process to offer an efficient and realistic answer for solving optimization problems. Martina et al. [21] used a systematic experimental approach using regression analysis to obtain the optimal deposition conditions of Ti6Al4V by the CMT process; they related the ratio between the wire feed speed and torch travel speed (WFS/TS) with the heat input and to the geometric characteristics of single and multi-layer deposits during a GTAW-WAAM process.

Ti6Al4V is one of the titanium-based alloys used mainly by the aerospace industry due to its balance between its physical and mechanical properties. This alloy was developed in 1950 at the Illinois Institute of Technology in the United States [25, 26]. However, due to the high sensitivity of Ti6Al4V to oxidation [27], the printing of large-scale components by AM in a controlled atmosphere is limited due to the required dimensions of the protective enclosure device and the large consumption of inert gas that increases the manufacturing costs.

One of the major challenges WAAM faces is the dimensional and surface control of final deposits which are common morphologic properties associated with the quality of products manufactured by means of this technique [28]. These effects are caused by heat input, deficient WFS control, and the TS. This paper presents the effect of these intrinsic factors on the aspect ratio, longitudinal layer continuity, metallurgical dilution, and microstructure of deposits of Ti6Al4V for single and multilayer wall constructions. This work also provides a methodology for the integral manufacturing of Ti6Al4V thin walls that do not require additional atmosphere-protection devices compared with other AM technologies.

2.1 Experimental methodology

The deposits were built along the center-line on the substrates of 60x15x7 and 150x20x7mm to single-layer and multi-layer deposits, respectively. The substrate and filler wire chemical composition are consistent with ASTM F2924-14. The WAAM was developed with a VR7000 CMT-transformer whose welding torch was attached to 6-axis robotic arm FANUC-Mate120iC located at the National Consortium for Additive Manufacturing (CONMAD-Mexico). The printing path and TS were controlled by the robotic system, while the CMT cycle parameters were kept constant by the transformer control unit (RCU5000). The evaluation parameters were defined according to experimental observations and theoretical considerations previously reported [29]. Argon gas (99.998%), was used as shielding gas through the nozzle of the welding torch with constant flow of 30 L/min.

The access to functional parameters for CMT-AM is still limited for general users; therefore, this work is aimed to develop ideal parameter sets for WAAM of Ti6Al4V. Two stages were defined to study the effect of the CMT parameters for its application as a way to develop WAAM. In the first stage, three DoE were performed considering different ranges for the parameters I_max, tI_max, I_w, TS and WFS to achieve an effective and continuous deposition in single layer deposits (SLD). The second stage consisted of manufacturing and characterizing multi-layer walls once three sets of the most favorable deposit factors were established.

2.2. First stage; Single Layer Deposits

Each parameter was defined by two levels as shown in Table 1. In order to consider all possible combinations, a 2⁴ complete factorial design was selected for the experimental regions. This experimental array reduces the number of tests required without repeating them [31].

Table 1

Design of experiments (DoE) for the definition of the three experimental regions and its operation levels.
Factor level 01 (Ep₀₁)			Factor level 02 (Ep₀₂)			Factor level 03 (Ep₀₃)
Param.	Min	Max	Param.	Min	Max	Param.	Min	Max
I_max	160 A	170 A	I_max	160 A	190 A	I_max	160 A	190 A
tI_max	10 ms	30 ms	tI_max	10 ms	30 ms	tI_max	10 ms	30 ms
I_w	70 A	110 A	I_w	110 A		I_w	110 A
WFS	25 m/min	56 m/min	WFS	5 m/min	10 m/min	WFS	5 m/min	20 m/min
TS	10 mm/s		TS	5 mm/s	15 mm/s	TS	5 mm/s	15 mm/s

The SLD evaluation criteria were aspect ratio (AR), percentage of metallurgical dilution (%D) (Fig. 1a), and layer continuity (LC). The AR, which is the ratio between layer width (W_L) and layer height (H_L), along with %D were measured to observe the effects of the process parameters on the final geometry of the layer. These magnitudes were obtained using the ImageJ software. The deposition rate (DR) was calculated by weighing the substrates before and after the printing procedure and relating it with the deposition time.

The LC was determined by processing the 3D virtual reconstruction using an Artec Spider 3D Scanner (STL file). The Geomagic-Studio software was employed to the alignment and reparation of STL files. A Phyton-script imports the aligned files and extracts profiles of cross-sections that constitutes the length of the bead. Each cross-section is taken with distance of 1mm at the long of the entire layer. The beginning and the end section (10mm) of the bead were discarded due to its irregular geometry.

The height (H_S) was measured as the vertical distance between the substrate base and the higher point of the cross-section. Then, the average bead height (ADH) was calculated involving the total sum of the H_s and with the total number of cross-sections (N_s) generated as describes Eq. 1. Moreover, the standard deviation from ADH respect to each H_s was calculated using the Eq. 2, that value is considered as LC for this work. The LC factor is the average variability of the H_s respect to ADS along the bead. From these assumptions, the following considerations were taken: LC = 0 indicates an ideal continuity and a coefficient LC≥1 represents that the deviation of the bead height is at least of the same magnitude as the ADH. Using this measurement methodology, the limitations of consider a single cross-section, commonly used in welding process, were eliminated.

$$ADH=\frac{{\sum\limits_{{i=1}}^{{{N_s}}} {{H_s}} }}{{{N_s}}}$$

$$LC=\sqrt {\frac{{\sum\limits_{{i=1}}^{{{N_s}}} {{{({H_s}+ADH)}^2}} }}{{{N_s}}}}$$

2.3. Second Stage.- Multi-layer wall deposits

Multi-layer walls were built during the second experimental stage using the best three parameter sets obtained from the processing maps developed in the 1st stage (Fig. 3). The parameters selected include three different power inputs (Q); one power input for every TS evaluated. This approach was practical to explore the effect that the heat has on the morphology of subsequent layers. The deposition strategy was the same for all deposits as shown in Fig. 1c; the torch travelled back and forth at two different times between beads (t_w=30 and 100s). The different deposition strategies (Table 2) were sufficient for the previously deposited layer to reach total solidification, according to experimental observations.

The selection of useful parameter set considered an AR with value of close to 1.5 different to the reported value of 2 [28]. The proposed value assured that the H_L would be greater than 60% of the W_L value, in order to deposit a smaller number of layers. For this work an AR close to 1.5 is proposed, this value guarantees that the H_L will be greater than 60% of the W_L value to deposit a smaller number of layers to reach the height wall required.

The DR of at least 2 Kg/h is indicative of Ti6Al4V transfer efficiency by WAAM as previously reported [29, 30]. In addition, a value of %D of at least 20% is proposed to promote the adhesion between layers, a lower value would represent the weak joining and the presence of defects due to lack of material. Finally, synergy points Ep_01_07, Ep_03_06, and Ep_03_16 delivered the target values for AR, LC, DR, and %D. Temperature measurements were performed at a fixed point (Fig. 1d) using a Metis H322 dual-wave pyrometer during the consecutive layer deposition to compare heat evolution in the proposed strategies.

For Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) using square sections of 3 mm and subjected to continuous heating (50°C/min) up to 1100°C for plate and multilayer wall. To identify the transformation temperatures in solid state, the rate of change of the potential difference with respect to time (µV/s) and related with the sample temperature. Additionally, as in the first stage, the deposited specimens were further prepared for studies of Energy Dispersed Spectroscopy (EDS) to analysis the distribution of the alloying elements throughout the wall. In addition, multi-layer walls were subjected to Vickers micro-hardness analyses. The indentations were performed for different manufactured walls with different Q and t_w values, and the results were averaged.

3.1. First Stage. - Single Layer Deposits

For the first experimental region (Ep₀₁), the calculated WFS/TS ratios were between 41 and 93, which are higher than the value of 20 reported as acceptable [33]. However, sets 02, 05, 13, and 15 did not obtain a complete bead as seen in virtual beads reconstructions of Fig. 2a. These sets had a difference of 90A from I_max to I_w (Table 1), which means a significant loss of power. A high-power fall promotes insufficient heat to complete the mass deposition resulting in globular and non-continuous deposits during CMT cycle as shown the longitudinal profiles of Fig. 2b for each experimental condition. In addition, it was found that 10ms are the minimum droplet growth time at maximum power to complete the Ti6Al4V transfer.

The resulting LC values of 0.3 was associated with the most continuous deposits, namely, sets 06 and 07 (Fig. 3a). The globular bead appearance was related to LC values greater than 1. The %D measurements showed values from 14 to 25% for the conditions with complete deposit, where values higher than 20% were reached with I_w of 110A (Fig. 3b). Similarly, the AR exhibited values in the range of 1.5 to 2 (Fig. 3c). Finally, the DR reached values above 2Kg/min for all conditions (Fig. 3d). The analysis allows identifying a region to acceptable SLD deposits by simultaneous overlapping contour plot combining the LC, %D AR, and DR results (Fig. 4a).

In order to expand the experimental window, a second experimental region (Ep₀₂) was designed where the I_max limit was increased to 190A. The WFS was reduced to a range of 5–10 m/min, additionally, the value of I_w=110A was assumed as the better option according to LC results; therefore, was kept constant for Ep₀₂.

During Ep₀₂, it was observed that eight parameter sets did not achieve effective material transfer due to lack of stability in electric arc showing a non-continuous longitudinal profile, as well as a lack of material in the bead (Fig. 2). Configurations 05, 07, 11, and 14 reached a complete and continuous bead; the WFS/TS ratio value obtained by these configurations was 33. The minimum LC value was 0.45 obtained in set 07; this profile exhibited the best continuity at this experimental region (Fig. 3a). The rest of the sets obtained a value of WFS/TS ratio less than 20 and LC between 0.65 and 1.2. The multivariable processing map is shown in conjunction with principal factors in Fig. 4b, where it was not possible to define an effective processing zone.

At Ep₀₂, the effective transfer conditions included a TS of 5mm/s and a WFS of 10m/min. From this observation, an additional experimental episode was defined (Ep₀₃) modifying the top value of WFS up to 20m/min, in order to increase the evaluated range. Experimental episode Ep₀₃ showed some non-successful sets for effective Ti6Al4V transfer. Nevertheless, set 06 showed an LC value equal to 0.14 (Fig. 2b), the lowest value obtained in the three parameter regions explored. The WFS and tI_max demonstrated the most influence on the evaluated variables (Fig. 4a); however, the TS exhibited continuous deposits when the value of 5mm/s was selected.

On the other hand, a reduction in the %D and DR was observed when the TS was increased (Fig. 3) due to the lower mass transfer resulting from this parameter modification. For this work, an acceptable value of LC was defined between 0.1 < LC < 0.4 for continuous deposits. A value less than 0.1 means no deposition, while values greater than 0.4 indicate non-continuous morphology.

3.2. Second Stage. – Multi-layer

Two deposition strategies were design each one with a different t_w and following the path described in as describe Fig. 1c. Six-layer walls were built with the three best parameters set extracted of processing maps (lighter zones) described in Fig. 4.

Two series of walls were manufactured; the first series (W₁, W₂, and W₃) were produced with t_w of 30s, while the second series (W₄, W₅, and W₆) were printed with t_w of 100s. Chemical analyses of elemental composition were carried out on samples W1, W2, and W3, built-up with different experimental input power, using EDS from the center towards the edge of the wall. An element map of a cross-section deposit is shown in Fig. 5.

The oxygen distribution suggests that the input power can promote oxidation on the surface since the wall manufactured with 450J/mm showed a maximum of 23%_wt of oxygen on the surface as exhibited in Fig. 6a. The wall printed with 150J/mm revealed 12%_wt of oxygen in a similar spatial location on the wall (Fig. 6c). The molten droplet interacts with the molten pool surface in cyclical motion during deposition, this interaction generates constant agitation promoting the distribution of the alloying elements during processing. From the experimental evidence, it can be said that the circulation of the molten pool in a radial and ascendant direction, from the interior to the surface, promotes higher oxygen distribution at the edges of the wall. An oxygen concentration in the central region of the wall was not detected with the EDS.

According to the equilibrium transformation diagram for Ti6Al4V developed by the working group (Fig. 7a), the transus temperatures are located at 280°, 450°C and 950°C. However, for the sample manufactured by CMT-WAAM the transformation temperatures were set at 180°, 380°, 700° and 850°C. The temperatures show a shift to the left (lower temperature orientation). A comparison between the curves obtained by DSC analysis is presented in Fig. 7b, where the shift of the transformation temperatures is shown. The decrease in the transformation ranges shows a decrease in the energy barrier required to perform the transformation in an average range of 100°C before it is performed on the plate sample due to the amount of energy available from residual stresses during the overheating and rapid solidification cycles.

The analysis of the micro-hardness distribution was performed on each of the deposited layers, the heat affected zone, and the substrate. The walls were tested for hardness along the center line of the cross-section as described in Fig. 8a, the values were not similar to the measurements obtained for the base material. Figure 8b presents the measured hardness values as a function of wall height. It was found that the micro-hardness values do not vary significantly between the first deposited layers and the HAZ. However, at the corresponding height of the last layer, it is possible to observe an increase in hardness. This increase is associated with the rapid heat extraction in the last layer, where the previously deposited material also contributes to the rapid heat extraction.

Different deposition strategies with different t_w (Table 2) does not seem to influence the values obtained for any deposition strategy used for the construction. The t_w of 100s did not influence significantly the micro-hardness values obtained per region tested compared with the results of walls with t_w of 30s.

Table 2

Parameter set for the construction of six-layer walls with the various depositing strategies.
Synergy Point	Wall	Q J/mm	t_w s	I_avg A	WFS m/min	TS mm/s	Height Wall mm	H_L Avg mm	W_L Avg mm	ALAR Avg W_L/ H_L
Ep_01_07	W₁	207	30	115	55	10	15.21	4.87	2.53	1.92
Ep_03_06	W₂	450	30	125	10	5	20.29	4.75	3.38	2.65
Ep_03_16	W₃	150	30	125	20	15	12.51	6.96	2.08	2.38
Ep_01_07	W₄	207	100	115	55	10	15.02	6.79	2.50	1.90
Ep_03_06	W₅	450	100	125	10	5	19.54	4,96	3.25	2.38
Ep_03_16	W₆	150	100	125	20	15	13.49	4.78	2.24	2.13

Wall W₂ had the highest thermal input during processing and showed higher scattering of the hardness measurements. While, wall W₃, with the lowest heat load evaluated, showed less heterogeneity than W₂. However, the set of parameters used for wall W₁, with t_w equal to 30s, had the least dispersion in micro-hardness. Moreover, wall W₁ did not present spatter during processing and had the highest layer continuity. This behavior suggests that it is possible to obtain deposits whose morphologies and characteristics are useful for the AM of walls with a greater number of layers, no loss of filler material, and uniform micro-hardness.

The morphology of the walls was studied in both vertical (Fig. 9a) and horizontal (Fig. 9b) directions. The obtained profile integrates an analysis of total height, width, and continuity of each produced wall. With this perspective, it is possible to determine the effect of the process parameters on the deformation of the wall. Thus, the factor average-layer-aspect-ratio of the wall (ALAR) was introduced to evaluate the continuity of the wall deposit. ALAR represents the ratio of average width of the wall to the average heights of layers along the wall, as illustrated in Fig. 8c. In this work, the ALAR factor configuration for W₁ proved to be the most useful for AM of Ti6Al4V. In addition, the highest thermal load of the conditions under test indicated up to 70% more continuity in width and height layer-by-layer.

The value of ALAR for W₁ was 1.92 and was proposed as a reference to obtain highly reproducible multi-layer walls. Virtual reconstruction analyses demonstrated that the average width and average height of the thin walls were not influence by interpass times between 30 and 100s, which means more stable multi-layer walls. Additionally, the width and height of the walls seem to be directly proportional to TS in the range of process parameters studied. Therefore, both variables, width and height wall, were strongly influenced by the control of CMT.

This section summarizes the main accomplishments concerning the influence of the process parameters on the geometry control of the 18Ni-300 MS tracks deposited by LC technology as well as on microstructure, under different heat treatment:

This paper carried out experimental research on wire and arc additive manufacturing of single and multi-layer Ti6Al4V walls. A design of experiments in conjunction with statistical analysis allowed us to obtain several processing maps from the experimental part.
The parameter sets based on the obtained processing maps were helpful for the wire and arc additive manufacturing of Ti6Al4V multi-layer walls. It was possible to define a processing methodology that meets the required geometrical and morphological characteristics on a layer-by-layer basis. In addition, successful manufacturing regions were established for deposits requiring specific process conditions. The processing regions showed a high layer reproducibility during the construction of walls with a greater number of layers with DR of 2Kg/h. The AR of 1.5 proved to be useful for subsequent layer construction, maintaining a value of %D equals to 20%.
The combined factors of TS, WFS, and tI_max showed to have the most significant influence on the deposit morphologies evaluated in this work. Moreover, the value of 110A for I_w led to the best stability in the CMT cycle for Ti6Al4V.
The continuity degree of multi-layer walls was represented by the value of ALAR, which represents the average ratio of the width of each layer to the height of the deposited layers. A coefficient of this ratio of 1.92 produced walls with the best profile. On the other hand, the dispersion of micro-hardness values on cross-sections of multi-layer walls were was greater as the heat input increased.

Funding: The authors are grateful to CONMAD-CONACYT (Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnologia-Mexico) for financial support of this work. This work was supported by FORDECYT 297265 (Fortalecimiento de las Capacidades de Investigación, Desarrollo e Innovación del CIDESI para Atender las Necesidades Científico-Tecnológicas en Manufactura Aditiva de la Industria en la Región Centro-Norte de México) and FORDECYT 296384.

Competing interests: The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Availability of data and material: Not applicable

Code availability: Not applicable

Authors contributions:

Emmanuel Reyes-Gordillo: Conceptualization, Methodology, Investigation, Formal analysis, Writing – Original Draft.

Arturo Gómez-Ortega: Conceptualization, Methodology, Formal analysis, Supervision, Review & Editing – Original Draft.

Ricardo Morales-Estrella: Conceptualization, Methodology, Formal analysis, Supervision, Review & Editing – Original Draft, Visualization.

James Pérez-Barrera: Conceptualization, Methodology, Formal analysis, Supervision, Review – Original Draft.

Juan Manuel González-Carmona: Methodology, Formal analysis, Supervision, Review – Original Draft.

Ramiro Escudero-García: Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Supervision, Review – Original Draft.

J. M. Alvarado-Orozco: Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Writing – Review & Editing, Resources, Funding acquisition.

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Effect of Cold Metal Transfer Parameters during Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing of Ti6Al4V Multi-layer Walls

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Abstract

Figures

1. Introduction

2. Materials And Methods

2.1 Experimental methodology

2.2. First stage; Single Layer Deposits

2.3. Second Stage.- Multi-layer wall deposits

3. Results And Discussion

3.1. First Stage. - Single Layer Deposits

3.2. Second Stage. – Multi-layer

4. Conclusions

Declarations

References

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