The Moderating Effect of Digital Empowerment on the Relationships between Old Age and Online Services Related to Coronavirus Disease 2019 in Korean

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-1989128/v1

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The Moderating Effect of Digital Empowerment on the Relationships between Old Age and Online Services Related to Coronavirus Disease 2019 in Korean

https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-1989128/v1

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Background: Older adults experiencing difficulty using digital technology have to find Online Services Related to Coronavirus Disease. This study examined the relationship between age and the use of various online services related to coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) and the moderating effect of consumers’ digital empowerment in this relationship.

Methods: A regression analysis was performed to examine how respondents’ characteristics affect consumer empowerment. Further, a general linear model was used to investigate the main and interaction effects of age and empowerment on the recognition and experience of services related to COVID-19 using the 2021 Information Divide Index in Korea.

Results: The results confirm that the recognition and experience of online services related to COVID-19 differ according to age. Additionally, the difference according to age was moderated by consumer empowerment.

Conclusion: When empowerment was high, the difference in recognition and experiences of online services related to COVID-19 decreased with age.

digital divide

consumer empowerment

COVID-19

older adults

online service

Digital technology provides beneficial opportunities in various fields and daily life. However, opportunities and benefits differ depending on the level of access to and use of digital technology. In particular, in the digital environment, older adults are recognized as the most vulnerable group, with the lowest level of empowerment and utilization of wired and wireless digital devices [1-3].

In the context of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), various digital technologies have been developed in Korea, from the provision of information on its route of movement, confirmed cases, and the rate of occurrence of confirmed cases by region to daily life applications, such as mask stock pharmacies notification.

Young people can actively utilize these technologies to easily purchase masks online, check the stock of masks through a smartphone app, and share COVID-19 information to prepare for infection. However, older adults experiencing difficulty using digital technology have to find masks offline and face challenges in purchasing daily necessities because of having to refrain from going out owing to the risk of infection. Moreover, even for older adults who are proficient in using smartphones, it is difficult to quickly understand how to use the latest technologies related to COVID-19, as these technologies are continuously developing and usage is constantly changing [4].

The digital divide has evolved into a multidimensional and complex phenomenon. The gap in physical access that existed earlier has mostly been closed as digital gadgets have become more widespread. However, recently, more focus has been on the differences in digital use-ability, utilization, performance, or outcome among digital users. This is because the difference between the ability to use digital devices and the use of information can lead to different results.

The discussion of the information divide among older adults also focuses on digital device use-ability and the consequences of using information. According to previous studies [5-6], using digital technology can positively affect daily life and life satisfaction by maintaining and strengthening social networks, social participation, economic activities, and the psychological and emotional support of older adults. However, discussion on how older adults’ ability to use digital devices and information affects their life satisfaction is relatively lacking. Previous studies assumed that the difference in digital device use-ability or information utilization improved the quality of life through information and changed the life experienced after using digital devices [7-8]. However, the results of these studies were inconsistent. One study reported that older adults’ ability to use digital devices directly affects the results of information use [9-10]. Simultaneously, another study reported that the pathways between older adults’ digital devise usage and the informational effect of this usage are insignificant [11]. It is necessary to examine the information divide regarding consumer empowerment to overcome these problems. Recent studies indicate an increased interest in consumer empowerment, which encompasses consumer knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors [12]. Unlike literacy, which includes only knowledge and technical aspects, consumer empowerment is a concept that consists of all consumer knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors [13]. Consumer empowerment, therefore, can be a better predictor of consumer wellbeing-related information, as it represents the totality of capabilities required to effectively fulfill the consumer’s role and encompasses the information divide.

In this study, we examine the relationship between age and the use of various online services related to COVID-19 and the moderating effect of consumers’ digital competence in this relationship.

Effect of Coronavirus disease 2019 on the Daily Life of Older Adults

COVID-19, which started in December 2019, spread to many countries within a few months. In Korea, the first confirmed case appeared in January 2020, and the World Health Organization declared the COVID-19 pandemic on March 11, 2020.

Although COVID-19 affects all population groups, it may have a greater impact on older adults [14-15]. Generally, old age is associated with a high risk of disease exposure due to decreased physical function and immunity and is often accompanied by chronic diseases. Notably, all age groups are at risk of contracting COVID-19; however, older adults are at a significantly higher risk of mortality and severe disease following infection, with those aged over 80 years old dying at five times the average rate. An estimated 66% of individuals aged 70 years and over have at least one underlying condition, placing them at an increased risk of severe impact from COVID-19 [16]. According to Wikler [17], access to health is mainly high in the middle class, but information inequality is high in socially vulnerable groups, such as older adults. If information on various medical services is provided online, there is a high possibility that older adults will have difficulty finding or accepting information related to infectious diseases on their own because using smart devices is less comfortable for older adults than for young people. Ultimately, decreasing outside activities due to COVID-19 can lead to mental and physical health deterioration for older adults who do not have a vast social network. The virus threatens the lives and safety of older persons, their social networks, and their access to health services [16]. Shin et al. [15] also showed that the difficulties in using information and communication technology among older adults with COVID-19 and social isolation due to extended community participation restrictions could cause severe psychosocial problems. In particular, as the demand for masks surged to help with the prevention of COVID-19, most older adults who purchased masks only at offline stores had difficulties purchasing them, unlike young people who searched for and purchased masks online. You et al. [18], on changes in the daily lives of older adults due to COVID-19, emphasized the difficulty of using non-face-to-face services.

Consumer Empowerment in Digital Environment

Consumer ability, capacity, and literacy have long been the focus of consumer studies and are mainly used as concepts referring to a consumer’s cognition, information-searching, and information-understanding abilities [19]. Conversely, based on previous studies [12, 20-22], consumer empowerment can be described as a consumer having the complete ability to achieve astute and socially sustainable consumption. Specifically, a consumer possesses the knowledge, purpose, motivation, and ability to strive for personal benefits and influence producers. The European Union defines consumer empowerment as a multidimensional concept encompassing skills, competencies, awareness of consumer rights, and the ability to react when not respected [12]. Overall, consumer empowerment does not comprise a single domain, such as cognitive or technical ability, but is a multifaceted concept that includes all cognitive, affective, and practical abilities.

Furthermore, regarding the digital capabilities of consumers concerning consumer empowerment, Glister [23] defines digital literacy as a set of skills to access the Internet; find, manage and edit digital information; join in communications; and otherwise engage with an online information and communication network. In simple terms, digital literacy is the ability to properly use and evaluate digital resources, tools, and services, and apply it to their lifelong learning process.

Digital competency comprises technical information on using digital technologies, formal and informal digital environments of information in screening, assessment and management, communication and collaboration, digital content creation, digital media, providing safety, problem-solving, job, employment, community inclusion, learning about digital technology to achieve the goals of critical, creative thinking, and confidence [24]. Ilomäki et al. [25] state that digital empowerment encompasses technical skills, using digital technologies in business and everyday life, a critical assessment of digital technologies, and participation in digital culture. Digital competency includes taking advantage of the possibilities of digital technologies and dealing with their disadvantages [26].

Therefore, in this study, the existing concepts of digital literacy [23] and competency [24-26] are expanded to include consumer empowerment and the total consumer digital empowerment, including knowledge, attitude, and behavior required by consumers in a digital environment.

Data

This study used secondary data drawn from the 2021 Information Divide Index Data published by the South Korean National Information Society AgencyThese data are collected annually to divide the information into various groups. As this dataset contains information on general characteristics and the ability to use the Internet and smart devices, it is the best reference for this study. The Information Divide Index Data used stratified multi-stage sampling. They collected data from 7000 individuals aged 7 years and above, including 2300 older adults aged 55 years and older, from the public living in 16 Korean provinces. Data were collected from September to December 2021, using a face-to-face interview method based on a structured questionnaire.

The Elderly Welfare Act in South Korea defines older people as those over 65 years old, constituting the age criterion for welfare beneficiaries in South Korea. However, regarding healthcare, employment support, and information education, older people are defined as those aged 55 years and above. Therefore, given the different age criteria for identifying older people in Korea, we divided respondents into three groups: a young group aged 54 years or less, a young-old group aged 55–64 years, and an old-old group aged 65 years and above.

Measure

Empowerment was measured as the sum of knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors related to digital devices and content. Knowledge was measured as the ability to perform software installation and deletion, wireless Internet connection, environment setting, external device connection, file transfer, malicious code inspection and treatment, and document creation through PC and smart devices. Attitude was measured as the degree of agreement with the following four items (Cronbach’s α=.826): “digital technology is useful,” “digital technology makes my life convenient,” “digital technology is good for me,” and “I want to use digital technology more.” Behavior was measured as the total usage of 43 items related to search, e-mail, or content; social relation service or information sharing services; life services; document production and sharing; networking; and social participation. Knowledge, attitude, and behavior were all measured on a 4-point Likert scale, with a higher score indicating a greater degree of agreement. Respondents were classified into the “high” group if their empowerment score, which aggregated the knowledge, attitude, and behavior scores, was higher than the median value and into the “low” group if their empowerment score was lower than the median value (median = 2.81, min = 1, max = 4).

Recognition was summed up as 1 if one knew about the four items of online services related to COVID-19 and 0 if one did not know. The items comprised government subsidy application service, medical information service (e.g., the status of confirmed cases, movement of confirmed cases, location of screening clinics), delivery service for daily necessities including food, and digital content (video, sound source, e-book) subscription service. Experience was summed up as 1 if one used about the above four items and 0 if one not used.

Analysis

This study used IBM SPSS Windows version 24.0 to perform a regression analysis and examine how respondents’ characteristics affect each element of consumer empowerment (i.e., knowledge, attitude, and behavior). A general linear model was used to examine the main and interaction effects of age and empowerment on the recognition and experience of services related to COVID-19.

Differences in Characteristics According toAge

Table 1 shows respondents’ characteristics according to their age.

The male-to-female ratio appeared to have a similar distribution in all three groups. In education, the young group had the highest rate of college graduation and higher at 31.14%, the young-old group had the highest high school graduation rate at 65.43%, and the old-old group had a higher rate of middle school graduation and high school graduation at 34.45% and 39.16%, respectively. The differences were statistically significant. Regarding the monthly income results, the ratios of less than KRW 99 and KRW 100- KRW 199 in the old-old group were higher than those of the young and young-old groups, and these differences were statistically significant. Finally, the young group had high empowerment of 65.19%, but the young-old group decreased to 22.58% and the old-old group decreased to 5.45%, which was statistically significant.

Insert Table 1 Here

Empowerment According to Characteristics

Table 2 shows empowerment according to respondents’ characteristics.

Knowledge, attitude, and behavior were all affected by gender, age, education, and monthly income. All these scores were higher if the respondents were male, younger, had high school graduation and higher, and had a monthly income of KRW 500 or higher.

Insert Table 2 Here

Online Services Related to Coronavirus Disease 2019 According to Age and Empowerment

Table 3 and Fig. 1 show the effects of age and empowerment on the recognition and experience of online services related to COVID-19.

In Step 1, when only age was input as an independent variable, its influence was statistically significant. As shown in Figure 1, both recognition and experience scores significantly decreased as age increased.

In Step 2, both the main and interaction effects of age and empowerment were statistically significant. The difference between the high- and low-empowerment groups increased with age in both recognition and experience. The age-related decline was more pronounced in the low-empowerment group, and the high-empowerment group showed a smaller difference among the age groups than the low-empowerment group.

Insert Table 3 Here

Insert Figure 1 Here

This study examined whether there are difficulties in recognition and experience of online services related to COVID-19 resulting from the information divide experienced by older adults. Additionally, the moderating effect of consumer competence was examined to investigate the role of digital consumer empowerment in overcoming these difficulties.

First, gender, age, education, and income were found to be factors affecting consumer empowerment. This is consistent with findings in previous studies, including Nam [27], who found that highly educated and middle- and upper-class consumers with higher incomes had a higher level of consumer empowerment. This shows that highly educated groups are more likely to be exposed to consumer education, while higher-income groups can engage in various consumption experiences.

Second, regarding the recognition and experience of online services related to COVID-19 by age, the young group had the highest score for both recognition and experience, and the scores decreased in the order of the young-old group and old-old group. This decline was more significant in experience than recognition, and these differences were statistically significant. In Korea, most services related to COVID-19 are delivered online to consumers. When there was a shortage of masks for the initial quarantine, various online channels were informed regarding where to purchase masks, most reservations for vaccinations were made online, and applications for subsidies for confirmed patients were conducted online. Overall, mobile shopping increased by 24.5% in 2020, and mobile shopping for delivering food recorded the most significant increase among all products at 81.8% compared to 2019 [28]. However, this study found that older adults who are relatively vulnerable to COVID-19 and desperately need services related to COVID-19 more than anyone else, have difficulties recognizing and experiencing these services because of the digital divide.

Previous studies have argued that young people, “digital natives,” are more empowered by using new ICTs than people in older generations, who lag in using new technologies [29]. The older adults were on the negative side of the digital divide. The term “digital divide” identifies not only who uses the Internet and who does not, but also gradations of digital exclusion, that is, the complexity, depth, and variety of digital use. The lower use of digital devices among older adults has significant social and economic ramifications. As digital technology becomes more integrated into our daily lives, especially in risky situations such as COVID-19, those who do not use the Internet are more likely to be deprived of their rights and are disadvantaged. In a study by Brooke and Jackson [30], there was no active publicity for older adults for COVID-19-related services. Most older adults were unfamiliar with using smart devices, and there was no explicit discussion of facilitators providing information education or support for smart devices. Further, Bae [31] points out that older adults’ information divide and alienation will accelerate as more government policies are conducted non-face-to-face due to the risk of infection. Therefore, it is necessary to maximize the use of digital technology through smart device support and education. Moreover, it is essential to provide information through the phone or offline visits for older adults who have difficulty using smart devices. Additionally, continuous management is required through manuals such as offline visit guidelines for infectious diseases.

Third, this study was statistically significant owing to examining the moderating effect of consumer empowerment on the relationship between age and services related to COVID-19. Although the young group still had the highest score for both recognition and experience, the score difference between the young-old and the old-old groups, compared with the young group, decreased in the high empowerment group. In particular, concerning experience for the group with low empowerment, the score of the young group was 3.32, the young-old group was 2.50, and the old-old group was 1.83, which is a significant difference. Whereas, for the group with high empowerment, the young group was 3.85, the young-old group was 3.44, and the old-old group was 3.23, the score difference between the three groups was not significant.

Previous studies [32] attribute the digital divide affecting older adults to their personal characteristics, such as lower levels of computer literacy, technophobia, lack of perceived usefulness, and physical and cognitive deficits. Older adults are not monolithic concerning Internet usage. Within the population of older adults, Internet adoption rates vary by age, ethnicity, education, and income. Song et al. [33] emphasized that attitudes, motivations, education, income, governmental policies, and family and social support are all significant contributors to the severe impacts of the age-related digital divide on older adults during the pandemic. However, within each demographic subcategory, older adults have lower rates of Internet usage than younger adults [34]. Shin et al. [15] emphasized the need for education appropriate to the technology utilization of older adults. Additionally, it has been pointed out that older adults do not have any difficulty purchasing masks or obtaining information related to COVID-19. In comparison, older adults with low levels of technology use are inconvenienced because they have to rely only on offline stores. Moreover, for older adults with low empowerment, it is possible to consider a way to enable them to utilize the information or services they need by developing a more easily accessible application. In particular, it seems necessary to provide information by building a user interface optimized for older adults in consideration of their physical characteristics or the factors involved in older adults using digital devices. Further, Sixsmith et al. [35] emphasized that refining and using co-design principles on existing technologies that older adults use during the pandemic could lead to higher engagement and uptake by other older adults to support their wellness and independence. Martínez-Alcalá et al. [36] highlighted that societies must consider access to ICT as a fundamental human right and, therefore, must ensure that everyone has timely access, skills, and technical assistance to effectively navigate a fully digital world. For older adults, doing so may require access to technology and training tailored to different levels of experience, disability, and cognitive ability.

This study’s contribution confirms that the recognition and experience of online services related to COVID-19 differ according to age. Additionally, it was found that the age-related differences were regulated by empowerment. Thus, when empowerment was high, the difference in recognition and experiences of online services related to COVID-19 decreased with age.

The limitations of this study are as follows. First, the ratio of high empowerment among the old-old group was meager at 5.45%. Therefore, future studies should expand the sample size of older adults. Second, although this study confirmed the moderating effect of consumer empowerment, it was not sufficient to identify the characteristics of people with high empowerment or the specific variables affecting high empowerment. Therefore, it will be necessary for future research to elucidate the factors influencing such high empowerment.

This study examined the relationship between age and the use of various online services related to COVID-19 and the moderating effect of consumers’ digital competence in this relationship. The results confirm that the recognition and experience of online services related to COVID-19 differ according to age. Additionally, the difference according to age was moderated by consumer empowerment. This study’s contribution confirms that the recognition and experience of online services related to COVID-19 differ according to age. Additionally, it was found that the age-related differences were regulated by empowerment. Thus, when empowerment was high, the difference in recognition and experiences of online services related to COVID-19 decreased with age.

COVID-19: Coronavirus Disease 2019

Ethics approval and consent to participate

This was a retrospective study using secondary deidentified data; formal written consent from study subjects was not required.

Consent for publication

Not applicable

Availability of data and materials

The datasets generated during and/or analysed during the current study are available in the Korea Public Data Portal repository, https://www.data.go.kr

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.

Funding

This study did not receive any funding.

Authors’ contributions

Su-Jung Nam designed the study, collected data, performed data analysis, interpreted results, conceptualized, drafted.

Acknowledgements

Not applicable

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Table 1. Differences in characteristics according to age (n=5560)

	Young (n=3752)	Young-old (n=1001)	Old-old (n=807)	χ²	p
	n (%)	n (%)	n (%)
Gender				2.875	.237
Male	1965 (52.37)	511(51.05)	397 (49.19)
Female	1787 (47.63)	490 (48.95)	410 (50.81)
Education				2641.210	.000
Lower than elementary school Middle school graduation	2 (.05) 22 (.59)	19 (1.90) 146 (14.59)	166 (20.57) 278 (34.45)
High school graduation	1434 (38.22)	655 (65.43)	316 (39.16)
College graduation and higher	2294 (61.14)	181 (18.08)	47 (5.82)
Monthly Income^†				1714.988	.000
<=99	19 (.57)	19 (1.90)	85 (10.53)
100-199	57 (1.52)	80 (7.99)	266 (32.96)
200-299	325 (8.66)	191 (19.08)	192 (23.79)
300-399	768 (20.31)	231 (23.08)	128 (15.86)
400-499	842 (22.44)	155 (15.48)	41 (5.08)
500-599	824 (21.96)	150 (14.99)	45 (5.58)
600-699	469 (12.50)	101 (10.09)	28 (3.47)
700=<	454 (12.10)	74 (7.39)	22 (2.73)
Empowerment
High	2446 (65.19)	226 (22.58)	44 (5.45)	1258.806	.000
Low	1306 (34.81)	775 (77.42)	763 (94.55)

Note:^†South Korean 10,000 won (USD 1= KRW 1.131.00)

Table 2. Empowerment according to characteristics

	Knowledge			Attitude			Behavior
	B (	95% CI	p	B (	95% CI	p	B (	95% CI	p
Male	.207 (.131)	.179.235	.000	.054 (.052)	.031, .076	.000	.090 (.073)	.066,.115	.000
Age	-.025 (-.551)	-.026, -.024	.000	-.012 (-.414)	-.013 -.011	.000	-.012 (-.344)	-.013, -.011	.000
High school graduation and higher	.689 (.018)	.653,.724	.000	.239 (.187)	.211, .267	.000	.626 (.409)	.595,.657	.000
Income: 500 and more	.170 (.105)	.141,.200	.000	.072 (.069)	.049, .096	.000	.161 (.128)	.135,.187	.000
F	1454.178 (p=.000)			.460.622 (p=.000)			791.630 (p=.000)
Adj R²	.475			.223			.330

Table 3. Online services related to COVID 19 according to age and empowerment

	Recognition				Experience
	SS	F	P	η_p²	SS	F	P	η_p²
Step 1
Age	1022.668	1251.522	.000	.290	770.852	945.375	.000	.292
Step2
Age	51.022	110.711	.000	.038	139.680	199.710	.000	.082
Empowerment	53.558	116.214	.000	.020	187.085	267.489	.000	.056
AgeEmpowerment	13.098	28.422	.000	.010	19.512	27.898	.000	.012

No competing interests reported.

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The Moderating Effect of Digital Empowerment on the Relationships between Old Age and Online Services Related to Coronavirus Disease 2019 in Korean

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