Influence of Phosphogypsum on The Performance of Wheat (Triticum Aestivum L.) and Properties of Sodic Soil of Alage, Central Rift Valley of Ethiopia

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-1993840/v1

Download PDF

Research Article

Influence of Phosphogypsum on The Performance of Wheat (Triticum Aestivum L.) and Properties of Sodic Soil of Alage, Central Rift Valley of Ethiopia

https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-1993840/v1

This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License

Version 1

posted

You are reading this latest preprint version

Aims

Effect of phosphogypsum (PG) level and its application method on the performance of wheat and the chemical properties of sodic soils.

Methods

The field experiment was arranged as a split-plot design with three replications. Two methods of PG application (band and broadcast) were allocated as the main plot, and five PG levels (0, 50, 100, 150, and 200% GR) were randomly assigned as subplots. The experiments were repeated on plots and pots that were used for growing haricot beans using the same treatments and design. After two successive harvestings, soil samples (0–20 cm) were collected from each plot to compare treatment effects and analyzed for chemical properties.

Results

Results revealed that PG levels significantly reduced soil pH, ESP, and exchangeable Na⁺, whereas exchangeable Ca, SO₄ ^− 2, and available P were significantly increased compared with control in both methods of PG application. Grain and straw yields, P uptake, and protein contents were also significantly increased with increasing levels of PG. However, yields were significantly decreased when growing the crop on plots and pots previously used for haricot beans. Yield reduction during the second growing might be due to the reduction of available P in the soil solution. Soil chemical properties and wheat yield better under band PG application than broadcasted plots.

Conclusions

The study showed that the PG amendment offers twin benefits in reclaiming the sodic soil and providing P and SO₄ ^− 2 for growing crops. Repeating the experiment using higher levels of PG and at other sites on sodic soil is recommended to draw sound conclusions.

Broadcasting

Djido-river

irrigation

sodicity

reclamation

side banding

Sodicity-induced soil degradation is a major environmental constraint with severe negative impacts on agricultural productivity in arid and semiarid regions (Qadir et al. 2007). Sodic soils are characterized by high ESP and soil pH. High values of ESP cause deflocculating of clay particles and result in the deterioration of soil structure (Dodd et al. 2009; Shahid et al. 2018). This causes low infiltration rates, poor aeration, and surface crusting, which make it difficult for till and root penetration (Qadir and Schubert 2002). Also, high soil pH causes plant nutrient imbalance in terms of both deficiency and specific toxicity (Mengel et al. 2001), and these ultimately affect plant growth (Dodd et al. 2009). Thus, reclamation of sodic soils is paramount to boosting crop production (Yazdanpanah et al. 2013) and meeting the challenges of global food security (FAO 2014). Recently, different authors conducted reclamation of sodic or saline-sodic soil using the application of gypsum (Qureshi et al. 2018; Ashenafi and Nisaren 2019; Sisay 2021). However, gypsum has been blamed for the high cost of exploitation, crushing, and slow reaction (Wang et al. 2017) which affects its effective utilization.

Phosphogypsum (PG) is an industrial solid by-product generated during the production of phosphate fertilizers via a wet process by which apatite reacted with sulfuric acid to produce phosphoric acid (Koopman and Witkamp, 2000; Rentería-Villalobos et al. 2010). The wet process generates a large amount of PG (Fuleihan 2012; Nayak et al. 2013), exceeding 280 million tons per year worldwide (Yun-jia et al. 2009), of which, 14% is being revalorized, 28% is dumped into water bodies and 58% is being stockpiled (Rutherford et al. 1996). More than 92% of PG is CaSO₄·2H₂O, which is an excellent source of soluble Ca^+ 2 to reclaim sodic soils. The application of PG amendments to agricultural soils enhanced nutrient availability to growing crops due to the presence of large amounts of calcium, iron, zinc, phosphorus, and sulfur (Yurkova 2012; Endovitsky et al. 2015; Hentati et al. 2015; Raja et al. 2020).

Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is one of the most important and strategic staple crops in Ethiopia and a major pillar for food security. Wheat provides around 20% of protein and calorie contents (FAO, 2015) and is a major source of energy and protein for highland farmers. Ethiopia is the largest wheat producer in sub-Saharan Africa with a record harvest of 4.6 million metric tons registered in 2017 (CSA 2019). However, the country imported 1.5 million tons of wheat in the same year, corresponding to a value of around $600 million (CSA 2019), which severely affects the foreign currency reserve (Mihratu et al. 2018; Assefa et al. 2021). The present national average wheat yield was increased by 2.97 t ha^− 1 in 2019 (Zewdie 2022) which is much lower than the 4.39 t ha^− 1 world average wheat yield (Purdy and Langemeier, 2018).

In Ethiopia, more than 8M ha and 3M ha of land are dominantly affected by saline-sodic and sodic soils, respectively (Habtamu 2013) resulting in huge crop losses and declined productivity of the land. Thus, a combination of appropriate reclamation and management interventions has the potential to transform sodic soil from an environmental burden into an economic asset (Murtaza et al. 2009). The beneficial effects of PG amendments on the reclamation of sodic soil have been well documented (Nayak et al. 2013; Gharaibeh et al. 2014). However, most of the results are based on small trial/laboratory experiments, and there is a lack of information regarding the application of PG amendments to large-scale fields. The treatment of barren sodic soils with PG is considered to benefit both agricultural development and the improvement of local ecosystems. However, there is no study on PG amendment for reclamation of sodic soils in the country in general, and in the study area in particular. Based on the substantial potential of PG amendments to improve sodic soils, a two-year field experiment was performed in the study area. A pot trial using similar PG levels was also carried out under greenhouse two successive times. The objective of the study was to evaluate the influence of increasing levels of PG application on the performance of wheat and selected properties of sodic soil at Alage, central Rift Valley of Ethiopia.

Description of the study area

A two-year experiment was conducted in 2020 and 2021 at Alage Agricultural Technical Vocational Educational and Training College, Central Rift Valley of Ethiopia (Fig. 1). The study area was located in the Tepid Semi-Arid Mid-Highlands (SA3) agroecology zone at 07° 34`59``N and 38° 25` 33``E and about 217 km south of Addis Ababa and 38 km west of Bulbula town in the vicinity of Rift Valley lakes (Abijata and Shalla). It has an elevation of 1600 meters above sea level. The site receives average annual rainfall between 750 and 1500 mm with annual temperatures varying from 8 to 33.6 ⁰C (Fig. 2). The dominant soil type of trial site is Solonetz (Alemayehu et al. 2016). The initial properties of the soil, PG, and the irrigation water used for the experiment are presented in Table 1.

Table 1

Chemical analysis of soil (0–20 cm depth), irrigation water, and PG was used in the study (Haile et al. 2022)
Soil property	Units	Soil	Irrigation Water	Phosphogypsum
Sand	%	46.67	-	-
Silt	%	20.33	-	-
Clay	%	33.00	-	-
Texture	-	Loam	-	-
Bd	g cm^− 3	0.92	-	-
OM	%	4.44	-	-
pH	-	9.94	7.80	2.26
EC	dS m^− 1	0.33	0.17	8.30
Avai. P	mg kg^− 1	0.12	-	105.04
Excha.Na	cmol_c kg^− 1	28.88	-	1.47
Excha.K	cmol_c kg^− 1	1.48	-	2.99
Excha.Ca	cmol_c kg^− 1	22.01	-	140.49
Excha.Mg	cmol_c kg^− 1	1.00	-	1.01
CEC	cmol_c kg^− 1	42.00
ESP	%	68.75	-	-
SAR	-	-	0.71	-
SO₄ ^− 2	meq L^− 1, PG/mg kg^− 1	6.08	0.04	1856.14
PO₄ ^− 3	meq L^− 1	-	2.00	-
Cl⁻	meq L^− 1	17.51	0.28	-
HCO₃⁻	meq L^− 1	100.39	2.00	-
CO₃ ^− 2	meq L^− 1	25.13	-	-
RSC	meq L^− 1	-	-0.22	-
♦ Excha = exchangeable; SAR = sodium adsorption ratio; Bd = bulk density; EC_w=electrical conductivity of water; RSC = residual sodium carbonate; ESP = exchangeable sodium percentage.

Experimental design and treatments

A field experiment was conducted using split-plot design comprising two methods of PG application (band and broadcast) allocated to the main plots, and five PG levels (0, 50, 100, 150, and 200% GR) randomly assigned to the subplot with three replications. Whereas a pot experiment having the same PG levels was laid out as a completely randomized design with four replications.

Experimental procedures and management practices

The experimental land was plowed and pulverized two times with a tractor and then leveled using labor with a hand hoe. The leveled field was divided into experimental plot sizes (4 m x 5 m) and 20 cm of headspace was left at each plot to facilitate horizontal drainage. The PG was applied as per the treatments 30 days before sowing the seeds on both band and broadcast plots. Soils were irrigated immediately after the application of PG using a flood irrigation system from Djido River to facilitate exchange reaction and leaching. The trial was irrigated three times before sowing. After each irrigation trial, the plots were tilled using manpower at a plot. The gypsum requirement of the PG amendments (GR_PG) was calculated using a modified method of Zhao et al. (2018). Accordingly, the GR was 12.7 t/ha.

GR_PG (kg/ha) = [86 × CEC × (ESP − 10%) + 86 × TA − 28.22] × d × Bd × η /f

Where, GR_PG is the gypsum requirement of PG amendments (kg ha^− 1), ESP is the exchangeable sodium percentage (%), CEC is the total cation exchange capacity (cmol_c kg^− 1), TA is the total alkalinity (CO₃ ^− 2 + HCO₃⁻, mg kg^− 1), d is the soil depth to be reclaimed in cm, 20 cm in this study, Bd is the bulk density (g cm^− 3), f is the effective utilization of CaSO₄ (100%), and η is the CaSO₄ content of the PG (65–70%), 65% in this study.

Recently released wheat variety “Fantale 2” was sown at a seeding rate of 100 kg ha^− 1 by hand drilling at a spacing of 20 cm between rows. Urea (46-0-0) was applied to all plots and pots at the recommended rate of 46 kg ha^− 1 N during both planting times. Irrigation water was applied three times per week by the flooded irrigation method to all plots until the plants reach physiological maturity. The experiment was repeated on plots used to evaluate the response of haricot beans to increasing levels of PG without applying any additional PG but applying N at the recommended rate at second planting. The trial was weeded using hand weeding and Karate Insecticide (5 Ec, Syngenta Brand) was used to control wheat rust. Other management practices were carried out uniformly in all experimental units. After harvest, soil samples (0–20 cm) were collected from each plot using an augur and subjected to chemical analysis.

2.4. Data collection and measurements

The wheat crop was harvested from 16 central rows at the maturity stage. Harvesting of wheat was done by hand. Data on grain yield and straw yields were recorded at each harvest. Grain yield (kg ha^− 1) was determined after threshing the seeds harvested from each net plot. Grain yields were adjusted to approximately l2% moisture content. The straw yield was calculated as the difference between the total aboveground plant biomass and grain yield.

Analysis of PG-treated soils and plant tissue

Soil pH was measured using a glass combination electrode in a solution of 1:2.5 soil to water ratio. Available P was determined following the Olsen extraction method (Olsen et al. 1954). The exchangeable basic cations were extracted following the 1 M-ammonium acetate method at pH 7.0 (Van 1993), and the concentrations of Ca and Mg ²⁺ were measured using Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy, while K⁺ and Na⁺ were measured using a flame photometer. The CEC of the soil samples was determined by the sum of exchangeable base cations (K⁺+ Ca + Mg²⁺ + Na⁺) from the ammonium acetate leachate. This is with the assumption that in salt-affected soils (pH > 7.2), acidic cations (Al^+ 3, H⁺, and NH₄⁺) are negligible/absent, and the soils mainly contain only K⁺, Ca, Mg^2+, and Na⁺ at exchangeable sites resulting in CEC equals to the sum of basic cations (McKenzie et al. 2004; Rengasamy 2016). The values of exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) were computed as follows.

$$\text{E}\text{S}\text{P}\left(\text{%}\right)=\frac{\text{E}\text{x}\text{c}\text{h}\text{a}\text{n}\text{g}\text{e}\text{a}\text{b}\text{l}\text{e} \text{N}\text{a}}{\text{C}\text{E}\text{C}}\text{x}100$$

Plant tissue samples (grain and straw) from each plot were put in envelopes and oven-dried at 70°C to constant weight and finely ground using a stainless-steel grinder to pass through a 0.5 mm mesh sieve and analyzed for nutrient concentrations. Total N content in wheat was analyzed by the Kjeldahl procedure (Gupta 2000). The crude protein content of the wheat grain was calculated from the N content of the grains multiplied by 6.25 (100/16 = 6.25) (AOAC 1980). Total P content in wheat was analyzed by the wet acid digestion method (Nieman and Clark, 1976). The extracted solution was filtered through Whatman filter paper No.42 and P content (P mg L^− 1) and determined using the Ammonium-Vanadomolybdate method using UV-Visible Spectrophotometer at λ_max of 470 nm.

Statistical analysis

Before the analysis of variance (ANOVA), the normality of the data was checked using the Shapiro–Wilk normality test. Statistical analysis was performed using SAS 9.3 software package (SAS 2004). Three-way ANOVA was carried out to test the effect of each factor and identify significant interactions between PG levels, method of PG application, and cropping sequence separately. Means comparison was done using Least Significant Difference at a 5% probability level.

Effects of PG amendment on chemical properties of sodic soil

The soil pH, available P, ESP, and exchangeable Ca were significantly (P < 0.001) affected by the PG level and method of PG application (Table 2). Soil pH was significantly reduced from 9.69 to 7.57 in broadcasting and 9.84 to 7.29 in banding plots, whereas ESP was reduced from 58.36 to 2.17% in broadcasting and 68.66 to 1.39% in banding. Results showed that both banding and broadcasting method of PG application resulted in a similar reduction in soil pH and ESP at the first harvest. After the second harvest, however, the reductions were relatively lower compared with the first harvest under both methods of PG application (data not shown). Similarly, the highest reductions in exchangeable Na⁺ were observed after the second planting as compared to the first (Fig. 3). These reductions improve the availability of exchangeable Ca in the soil profile at every increasing level of PG in the second harvest (Fig. 3).

Highest value of exchangeable Ca was observed in banding compared with the broadcasting method of PG application at every increasing level (Table 2) and its value was increased by 34.53, 85.49, 90.97, and 94.09% over control, 50, 100, and 150% GR rates, respectively in banding while respective increment over the control, 50, 100, and 150% GR rates were 48.56, 60.39, 77.91 and 87.33%, respectively in broadcasting. As presented in Fig. 3, the highest value of exchangeable Ca was recorded from the second planting compared to the first. The highest level of PG (200% GR) resulted in an exchangeable Ca that was higher by 29.57, 60.40, 79.84, and 85.84% compared to the control, 50, 100, and 150% GR rates, respectively after the first seeding while the respective increments were by 28.83, 62.53, 82.13, and 88.91% during the second seeding under broadcast PG application. Under PG banding, the highest rate of PG (200% GR) application resulted in exchangeable Ca content that was higher by 37.17, 70.02, 88.09, and 96.02% than the control, 50, 100, and 150% GR rates, respectively after the first seeding, while the respective increments over the control, 50, 100, and 150% GR rates were 37.01, 83.48, 98.33, and 97.41% during the second seeding. These increments in exchangeable Ca largely affected the availability of P in soil solutions at the second harvest (Table 3).

Table 2

Effect PG level and method of application on chemical properties
Amendment GR (%)	Broadcast method			Band method
	pH	Ca cmol(+) kg^− 1	ESP %	pH	Ca cmol(+) kg^− 1	ESP %
0	9.69^a	18.08^d	58.36a	9.84^a	14.78^d	68.66^a
50	9.35^b	22.48^c	44.74^b	8.87^b	44.76^c	18.42^b
100	8.35^c	29.56^b	12.12^c	7.92^c	47.62^bc	6.71^c
150	7.75^d	31.95^b	9.04^d	7.66^d	49.26^ab	2.77^d
200	7.57^d	37.22^a	2.17^e	7.29^e	52.36^a	1.39^e
LSD _0.05	0.20	3.27	2.17	0.19	3.50	1.09
CV(%)	1.29	6.45	4.72	1.24	4.62	3.06

♦ Means within a column followed by the same letter(s) are not significantly different at P < 0.05: LSD = list significant differences; CV = coefficient of variation, and GR = gypsum requirement of PG amendments.

The levels and method of PG application had highly significant (P < 0.001) effects on Olsen extractable P (Table 2). The available P content continuously increased with increasing levels of PG under both application methods of PG (Table 3). Under broadcasting, the available P was increased from 8.08 to 30.90 mg kg^− 1 (first seeding) and from 3.10 to 13.55 mg kg^− 1 (second seeding) (Table 3). The highest level of PG (200% GR) resulted in available P content that was higher by 26.15, 29.42, 69.19, and 80.78% compared to the control, 50, 100, and 150% GR, respectively while the respective increments were by 28.83, 61.34, 66.20, and 98.91% at the second seeding under broadcast PG application. Under PG banding, the available P was increased from 9.28 to 42.78 mg kg^− 1 during the first seeding and from 3.96 to 23.20 mg kg^− 1 after the second seeding (Table 3). The highest rate of PG (200% GR) application resulted in available P that was higher by 21.69, 56.64, 86.98, and 96.05% than the control, 50, 100, and 150% GR rate, respectively after the first seeding while the respective increments were by 26.21, 54.21, 79.01, and 89.36% after the second seeding.

Under the pot experiment, the available P contents were also increased from 10.65 to 25.33 mg kg^− 1 during the first seeding and from 2.88 to 13.10 mg kg^− 1 after the second seeding (Table 3). Application of the highest level of PG (200% GR) resulted in available P content that was higher by 42.05, 49.31, 74.97, and 93.13% than the control, 50, 100, and 150% GR rates respectively after the first seeding, and by 21.99, 76.72, 83.51, and 93.66% respectively after the second seeding. The results of the two successive seedings in the field and pot experiments showed that soil available P increased with increasing PG levels, however, the values of available P decreased during the second seeding (Table 3).

Table 3

Effects of increasing PG level on soil available P (mg kg^− 1) in two successive seedings.
Amendment GR (%)	Broadcasted		Banded		Pot experiment
	Planting time
	First	Second	First	Second	First	Second
0	8.08^e	5.57^d	9.28^e	5.57^e	10.65^c	2.88^d
50	11.85^d	9.09^c	24.23^d	11.52^d	12.49^c	10.05^c
100	21.38^c	12.79^b	37.21^c	16.79^c	18.99^b	10.94^bc
150	24.96^b	19.11^a	41.09^b	18.99^b	23.59^a	12.27^ab
200	30.90^a	19.32^a	42.78^a	21.25^a	25.33^a	13.10^a
CV (%)	2.06	6.61	0.70	3.46	5.86	4.14
LSD _0.05	0.71	2.33	1.25	1.32	2.87	1.10

The PG level, method of PG application, and their interaction significantly (p < 0.01) affected extractable SO₄ ^− 2 (Table 4). Results revealed that extractable SO₄ ^− 2 was increased from 16.03 to 832.13 mg kg^− 1 in the broadcasted plots whereas it was increased from 22.28 to1001.60 mg kg^− 1 in the banded plots. The highest level of PG (200% GR) resulted in an extractable SO₄ ^− 2 that was higher by 1.93, 51.05, 81.62, and 87.78% compared to the control, 50, 100, and 150% GR, respectively under broadcast, whereas the respective increments in extractable SO₄ ^− 2 content were by 2.23, 51.20, 81.67, and 87.82% under banded plots. The maximum value of SO₄ ^− 2 was obtained from both methods of PG application at the highest rate and its value increased linearly with the PG level, whereas banded plots showed more extractable SO₄ ^− 2 than broadcasted plots.

Table 4

The effect of PG level and method of application on extractable SO₄ ^− 2 (mg kg^− 1) at the first harvest
Amended GR (%)	Broadcasted	Banded
0	16.03^e	22.28^e
50	424.80^d	512.80^d
100	679.13^c	818.00^c
150	730.47^b	879.60^b
200	832.13^a	1001.60^a
CV (%)	0.75	0.76
LSD _0.05	10.35	12.42

Yield and yield parameters of wheat as influenced PG amendments

Grain yield

Grain yield of wheat was highly significantly (P < 0.001) affected by PG levels, method of PG application, planting time, and their interactions in the field experiments (Table 5). The grain yields were continuously increased with increasing PG levels under both methods of PG application in the two consecutive planting times. The continuous increments recorded till the highest level of PG under both methods of the application indicate that PG levels over 200% GR should be applied to obtain an optimum yield of the crop. During the first seeding, the highest PG rate gave grain yields that were higher by 25.29, 55.43, 71.99, and 81.19% under banded, and 17.22, 42.56, 55.78, and 67.56% under broadcasted plots as compared to those from 0, 50, 100, and 150% GR, respectively. Similarly, the highest PG rate also gave yields that were over by 46.16, 55.43, 71.99, and 81.19% under broadcast and 28.68, 51.92, 68.81, and 74.01% under the band PG application than those from 0, 50, 100, and 150% GR, respectively. However, the grain yields decreased during the second seeding as compared to those from the first planting, and yield reduction showed similar decreasing trends at all PG levels (Table 5). Thus, the banding method of PG application resulted in higher grain yields at all PG levels compared to their broadcasting PG-applied counterparts (Table 5). Similarly, the grain yields significantly increased with increasing PG levels from 8.20 to 27 g pot^− 1 at the first planting and from 5.9 to 13.9 g pot^− 1 at seconding planting under the pot trial (Table 6). Similar to the results from the field trials, the yields were also decreased at every PG level during the second planting compared with the first seeding (Table 6).

Table 5

Yields and yield components of wheat as influenced by PG level, method of PG application, and planting time on sodic soil at Alage.
Amendment GR (%)	Grain yield (kg ha^− 1)	Straw yield (kg ha^− 1)	Grain yield (kg ha^− 1)	Straw yield (kg ha^− 1)
	First planting time		Second planting time
0	1145.80^e	1801.00^d	1095.80^c	802.10^c
50	2671.90^d	3970.20^c	1664.90^bc	1656.10^b
100	3486.00^c	5155.40^b	2293.90^b	2026.90^b
150	4086.50^b	6373.70^a	2294.20^b	2935.80^a
200	5591.70^a	7237.20^a	3130.40^a	3284.00^a
LSD _0.05	495.75	1076.80	795.30	676.99
CV (%)	11.93	17.93	21.01	6.72
Method of PG applications
Broadcast	3024.6^b	4428.60^b	1607.50^b	2092.40^b
Band	3768.2^a	5386.40^a	2584.20^a	2189.60^a
LSD _0.05	614.13	710.95	691.68	226.01
Planting time
First	3396.40^a	4907.50^a
Second	2095.90^b	2141.00^b
LSD _0.05	122.31	372.90

Straw yield

The PG level, method of application, and their interactions had highly significant (P < 0.001) effects on the straw yield in the field experiments (Table 5). The straw yields were continuously increased with increasing PG levels under both methods of PG application during two consecutive planting times. During the first seeding, the highest PG rate yielded values that were higher by 42.83, 52.29, 62.73, and 82.85% under PG broadcast, and 10.27, 56.95, 8.17, and 92.32% under the PG band than those from 0, 50, 100, and 150% GR, respectively. The highest PG rate gave yields that were over by 24.18, 52.29, 62.72, and 82.85% under broadcast and 24.67, 48.61, 60.75, and 95.81% under the PG band than those from 0, 50, 100, and 150% GR, respectively. However, the straw yields were decreased at all PG levels as compared to the yields from the first planting showing (Table 5).

The banding method of PG application gave higher straw yields at all applied PG levels as compared to their broadcasted PG counterparts (Table 5) showing that the banded method effectively increases the straw yields compared to the broadcasting method of PG application. The continuous increments recorded in straw yield till the highest level of PG application under both application methods indicate that PG levels over 200% GR should be applied to obtain an optimum yield of the crop. Similar to the yields obtained from the field trials, the straw yields were significantly increased with increasing PG levels from 4.5 to 36.8 g pot^− 1 at the first planting and from 13.9 to 22.2 g pot^− 1 at the second planting under the pot trial (Table 6). The yields were also decreased at every PG level during the second as compared to the first planting (Table 6).

Table 6

Yield and yield components of wheat under successive planting as influenced by PG level in the pot experiment.
Amendment GR (%)	Straw yield	Grain yield	Straw yield	Grain yield
Amendment GR (%)	g pot^− 1
	First planting time		Second planting time
0	4.50^d	8.2^c	13.89^d	5.87^c
50	27.53^c	24.3^b	16.53^c	11.47^b
100	28.50^c	24^b	19.29^b	12.23^b
150	33.70^b	24.8^b	22.15^a	13.89^a
200	36.80^a	27.0^a	22.05^a	13.23^a
LSD _0.05	2.48	2.05	2.34	0.78
CV (%)	6.29	6.27	8.26	4.55

♦ Means within a column followed by the same letter(s) are not significantly different at P < 0.05, LSD = List Significant Difference; CV = Coefficient of Variation, GR = Gypsum requirement.

Phosphorus uptake and its concentrations in grain and straw after the first planting

The concentrations of P in grain and straw were significantly (P < 0.001) affected by PG level and method of application (Table 7). The concentration of P in grain was increased with increasing PG levels from 3,604.5 to 3,988.3 mg kg^− 1 under PG broadcasting, and from 3,604.5 to 4,708.3 mg kg^− 1 in the banded plots (Table 8). Similarly, the concentration of P in straw was increased with increasing PG levels from 421.95 to 560.68 mg kg^− 1 under broadcasting, and from 421.95 to 639.55 mg kg^− 1 in the banded plots (Table ). The highest PG rate resulted in P concentrations in grain yield that were higher by 90.38, 92.72, 93.13, and 96.02% under broadcast, and 76.56, 87.18, 90.51, and 91.63% under banded than those from 0, 50, 100, and 150% rates under banded plots, respectively. Similarly, the highest PG rate resulted in P concentrations in the straw that was higher by 75.26, 84.69, 92.33, and 95.89% under broadcast, and 65.98, 92.12, 95.71, and 97.56% than those from 0, 50, 100, and 150% rates under banded plots, respectively.

The P uptakes also increased with increasing PG levels from 9.41 to 50.17 P kg ha^− 1 under broadcasted plots, and from 7.912 to 78.26 kg P ha^− 1 in the banded plots (Table 6) showing that applied PG increases available P in the soil which enhances P uptakes by the plant parts as compared to the control. The highest PG rate gave P uptake which was higher by 18.76, 49.17, 61.89, and 78.89% under broadcast, and 10.11, 44.25, 61.96, and 74.83% than those from 0, 50, 100, and 150% GR rates under band PG application, respectively. The highest uptakes and concentrations of P in grain and straw were obtained from the plots where PG was banded than those where PG was broadcasted. This could be due to the interaction of P with less volume of soil in the banding than broadcasting of PG.

Table 8: Effect of PG level and methods of application on the uptake and concentration of P in plant tissues after the first planting.

Amendment GR (%)	Broadcast method			Band method
	Grain P	Straw P	P uptakes kg ha^-1	Grain P	Straw P	P uptakes kg ha^-1
	mg kg^-1		P uptakes kg ha^-1	mg kg^-1		P uptakes kg ha^-1
0	3604.5^d	421.95^e	9.41^e	3604.5^e	421.95^e	7.91^d
50	3697.8^c	474.85^d	24.67^d	4104.8^d	589.15^d	34.63^c
100	3714.4^c	517.65^c	31.05^c	4261.5^c	612.13^c	48.49^b
150	3829.5^b	537.65^b	39.58^b	4314.3^b	623.92^b	58.56^b
200	3988.3^a	560.68^a	50.17^a	4708.3^a	639.55^a	78.26^a
CV(%)	0.55	1.82	6.53	0.65	1.02	15.13
LSD 0.05	37.70	16.67	3.68	49.84	10.761	12.55

♦ Means within a column followed by the same letter(s) are not significantly different at P≤0.05. LSD= List Significant Difference; CV= Coefficient of Variations; GR= Gypsum Requirement.

Nitrogen uptake and crude protein contents of wheat after the first planting

The N uptakes by grain and straw of wheat were significantly (P < 0.001) affected by PG levels and methods of PG application (Table 8). The N uptakes increased with increasing PG levels from 10,423.3 N kg ha^− 1 in control to 40,447.5 N kg ha^− 1 at 200% GR under PG banding, and from 10,423.3 N kg ha^− 1 in control to 38,302.9 N kg ha^− 1 at 200% GR in the broadcasted plots (Table 8). The N uptakes by straw and grain were continuously increased with increasing PG levels under both methods of PG application (Table 8). The highest PG level increased N uptake by 33.82, 48.86, 62.25, and 80.32% in grain and 31.51, 47.44, 59.33, and 82.32% in straw over the respective values of 0, 50, 100, and 150% PG rates under broadcasted plots. Similarly, the highest PG level also increased N uptake by 26.16, 45.54, 65.65, and 78.39% in grain and 24.55, 60.66, 65.13, and 77.52% in straw over the respective values of 0, 50, 100, and 150 PG rates under banded plots.

Crude protein (CP) content of wheat was significantly (P < 0.05) affected by PG level and its method of application (Table 8). Increasing the level of PG application significantly increased CP contents of the grain under both methods of PG application (Table 8). The highest PG rate gave grain CR grain that was higher by 94.94, 95.24, 97.58, and 98.09% than the values obtained from 0, 50, 100, and 150% GR rates respectively under PG broadcasting while the respective increments were higher by 92.93, 96.28, 98.18, and 98.83% under banded plots.

Table 8

Effect of PG level and its methods of application on N uptake and CP contents of wheat grain at the first harvest.
Amendments (GR%)	Band method			Broadcast method
	N (kg ha^− 1)			N (kg ha^− 1)
	Straw	Grain	CP (%)	Straw	Grain	CP (%)
0	2382.3^d	8041.0^d	12.95^d	2382.3^e	8041.0^e	12.95^d
50	5887.6^c	14000^c	13.21^c	3587.0^d	11615^d	12.99^cd
100	6320.8^c	20183^bc	13.47^b	4485.6^c	14800^c	13.31^bc
150	7523.5^b	24099^ab	13.56^ab	6224.2^b	19096^b	13.38^ab
200	9705.5^a	30742^a	13.72^a	7560.9^a	23774^a	13.64^a
CV (%)	4.25	14.90	0.72	3.72	4.11	0.92
LSD _0.05	643.77	6817.9	0.20	463.53	1632.4	0.31
♦ Means within a column followed by the same letter(s) are not significantly different at P ≤ 0.05. LSD = List Significant Difference; CV = Coefficient of Variations; GR = Gypsum Requirement.

Relationships between grain yield, P uptake, and soil available P

Positive significant (P < 0.001) correlations were observed between the grain yield of wheat and soil available P under both methods of PG application (Fig. 4). The results showed that soil available P was positively correlated with grain yield in the broadcasted plots (r = 0.91, first planting and r = 0.77, second planting) and in the banded plots (r = 0.92, first planting and r = 0.61, second planting). Also, a linear significant (P < 0.001) relationship existed between grain yield and P uptake with the PG levels under both methods of PG application (Fig. 5) indicating that maximum yields were not achieved by the treatment rates used in the study. The yield of wheat was also positively correlated with P uptake in broadcast (r = 0.98) and band (r = 0.89) PG application methods. Results confirmed that PG increased straw and grain P uptakes at all levels of PG. Thus, the application of PG on sodic soil decreases the toxic effect of Na⁺ and creates a favorable environment for the growth of the crops, and consequently enhanced yield and yield components of wheat.

Effects of PG amendment on chemical properties of the sodic soil

The PG used in this study released a huge amount of soluble Ca into the soil solution which replaced excess exchangeable Na⁺ from exchange sites and greatly reduces ESP (Zhao et al. 2018; Ng et al. 2022) which contributed to the decrease in the ESP. Our results are in agreement with previous findings (Nayak et al. 2013; Gharaibeh et al. 2014; Haile et al. 2022). During the ion exchange, a large amount of soluble Na⁺ is generated into the soil solution that is removed by irrigation water through drainage causing a huge reduction of ESP. This reduction improves the properties of the sodic soil and creates a conducive environment for growing crops.

Soil pH is mainly controlled by the exchangeable Na⁺ and soluble HCO₃⁻ + CO₃²⁻ present in soil solutions. Generally, the results showed that PG application increases H⁺ ion in soil solution, therefore, accelerating the reduction of soil pH in PG-treated sodic soils compared with control. Application of PG releases soluble Ca which replaces the exchangeable Na⁺ and also reacts with HCO₃⁻+ CO₃²⁻and changes sodic to neutral salt and thereby decreasing the soil pH (Zhao et al. 2018). In addition, the residual effect of H₂SO₄ and H₃PO₄ from PG released huge amounts of H⁺ ions into the soil solution (Nayak et al. 2013; Haile et al. 2022). Furthermore, decaying organic matter provided by wheat roots and other weeds increases the soil CO₂ concentration and then increases H⁺ ions in soil solutions contributing to the reduction of soil pH (Wang et al. 2009; Zhao et al. 2018). The reductions of soil pH and ESP due to PG amendment improve the properties of sodic soils and increase the growth and production of wheat compared to control. These results agree with previous findings by Lee et al. (2009); Al-Enazy et al. (2018); and Mahmoud et al. (2021). In a method of PG applications, the relatively highest soil pH and ESP reduction were observed in the banded compared with the broadcasted method of PG applications. This might be due to the huge amount of soluble Ca that exists near PG fertilizer bands are expected to encourage the huge reduction of soil pH and ESP than broadcasted plots. Similarly, the combined effect of PG and organic acids generated from wheat cultivars during the second planting greater reduced soil pH and ESP compared with the first planting. Banding decreases the surface area that contacts soluble Ca released from PG compared with broadcasting. Thus, the exchangeable Ca in and near the banded area is more exchangeable form than that of the site where equal amount of PG is broadcasted. The preparation the plots for the second planting, however, mixes the Ca-PG with large volume of soil resulting in less exchangeable Ca as compared to the first planting time. Under an irrigation system, huge contents of exchangeable Na were removed through leaching result more exchangeable Ca left in the soil profile. Until now, immobile nutrients such as Ca and P are more available in banding than in broadcasting plots.

Soil available P and extractable SO₄ ^− 2 contents were increased with increasing levels of PG. Our results are in line with previous findings (Lee et al. 2009; Al-Enazy et al. 2018; Moussa et al. 2020; Mahmoud et al. 2021; Haile et al. 2022). The increments in available P and extractable SO₄ ^− 2 might be due to their high concentrations in PG. However, P and SO₄ ^− 2 availabilities in soils were affected by the method of PG application. Banding application PG gave higher available P and extractable SO₄ ^− 2 contents compared with broadcasting. This result is in line with Andrés-Barbieri et al. (2014) who showed that higher P availability was observed in plots where phosphorous fertilizer was applied in banding than in broadcasting. Broadcast application of PG in the soil is exposed to a large volume of soil and results in high P fixation (Havlin et al. 2017). Banded application of PG saturates a small volume of soil and decreases the contact of soil particles with PG contributing to increasing soil available P and SO₄ ^− 2 (Havlin et al. 2017; Kraska et al. 2021).

At the second harvest, soil available P was decreased compared to the first harvest. Although the land preparation was done by digging after the first harvest, the parctice might have mixed the P-PG with a large volume of soil, and consequently increased P fixation (Havlin et al. 2017). Also, the increased exchangeable Ca at the second planting might have also increased the formation of insoluble calcium phosphate (Ca-P) (Nayak et al. 2013; Havlin et al. 2017). However, due to high mobility of extractable SO₄ ^− 2 its availability was decreased in second planting compared with first plantings (data not shown).

Grain and straw yields of wheat as influenced by PG amendments

Response of wheat to PG amendment varies depending on the PG level and its method of application. High soil pH coupled with high ESP values resulted in very low yields of untreated sodic soils. Yield and yield components of wheat were increased with increasing PG levels both in the field and in pot experiments. These results agree with Muhammad et al. (2014); Saqib et al. (2015); Wahid et al. (2020); and Rafiullah et al. (2020), who stated that the yield of wheat was increased with increasing P-PG levels. A huge amount of soluble P and SO₄ ^− 2 was released from PG without the application of any additional P fertilizer to increase wheat straw and grain yields over control. The increment of available P and SO₄ ^− 2 in the soil might have resulted in increasing crop production. Similar results were made by Nayak et al. (2013) and Bouray et al. (2020), with increased growth of the wheat due to increased available P that was released from PG amendments in soils. The release of P and SO₄ ^− 2 from PG could satisfy the demand for SO₄ ^− 2 in addition to P and hence improve the grain and straw yield of wheat as was also reported by Randhawa and Arora (2000); Bairwa et al. (2018); Phogat et al. (2018).

The highest grain yields were obtained from the banded plots at both planting times compared to the broadcasted. Band application saturates the soil solution with SO₄ ^− 2 and P that is released from PG in a relatively small area within the root zone, thereby reducing fixation of nutrients by large volume soil particles, thus increasing nutrient availability for growing crops and yield of wheat compared with broadcasted plots. These results agree with previous findings (Rahim et al. 2010; Andrés-Barbieri et al. 2014; Saqib et al. 2015; Khairu et al. 2018; Rafiullah et al. 2020; Kraska et al. 2021). Yield reduction in broadcasted compared to banded plots could be due to the reduction of available P and SO₄ ^− 2 exposed to a greater volume of soil and more P fixation than the same amount of PG applied to the band method (Havlin et al. 2017). Previous findings confirmed that the highest grain and straw yields of wheat were recorded from the banded than the broadcasted plots of P application (Hussain et al. 2008; Rahim et al. 2010; Saqib et al. 2015). Soil analysis results confirmed that the soil available P and SO₄ ^− 2 is reduced under broadcasted plots than those with band PG application. Thus, the increase in wheat yield under banded PG application is, therefore, due to the enhanced P uptake from plots with band compared to broadcasted plots. Better P uptake in banded plots might have also been due to increasing roots contacts with P-PG in a specific zone (Alam et al. 2018) whereas the broadcast application increase soil volume which contacts P-PG and results in decreased root contact with immobile nutrients particular P (Weil and Brady 2017).

In addition, grain and straw yield of wheat was significantly decreased in both field and pot trials at the second planting compared with the first planting time. Yield reduction might be due to the reduction of available P in soils at the second harvest being much lower than the first harvest which could be due to mixing the PG-treated soils with a large volume of soil during land preparation. Concentrated nutrients in small areas within the root zone are uniformly mixed with a large soil volume per plot, however, still better nutrients are available for growing crops compared with broadcast plots. Other factors that affect the reduction of available P at second harvesting are P uptake by grain and straw of wheat. These results agree with the previous finding (Gifole et al. 2011), which indicated that P uptakes decreased available P in soils. Overall reduction of available nutrients at second planting increases the reduction of grain and straw yield of wheat compared with first planting. Generally, the wheat variety “Fantale-2” used as a test crop in the present study performed better in terms of yield response to PG application than what has been reported in the literature (Mihratu et al. 2018) might be due to a high level of released P and SO₄ ^− 2 from PG combine with N (urea). The application of PG fertilizers could be a most direct and efficient approach to increasing wheat production, and thus the addition of excess amounts of P, Ca^+ 2, and SO₄ ^− 2 is usually considered a type of yield insurance.

Phosphorus uptake and its concentrations in grain and straw at the first planting

The application of PG released huge amounts of soluble P into the soil, thereby increasing the P availability. Adequate concentrations of P in soil solution increases absorption and uptake by plant roots which increases the growth and yield of the crops. These results agree with the previous finding (Lee et al. 2009; Setia and Sharma 2007; Saha et al. 2014). Increasing level of PG application increases the uptake and concentrations of P in wheat grain and straw. A similar report presented by Ali et al. (2014) and Asseffa et al.(2021) whereby increasing level of P fertilizer increased the uptake and concentration of P in straw and grain. The highest values of P concentration and uptake were recorded from banding than broadcasting. Because, soluble P released from broadcasting PG is exposed to a large volume of soil; hence, more P fixation occurs than the same amount of PG applied in the banded method (Havlin et al., 2017), whereas P released from banding PG accumulates in limited soil volume and contributes to huge amounts of available P in and near root zone (Saqib et al., 2015; Havlin et al., 2017; Khairu et al., 2018; Rafiullah et al., 2020; Kraska et al., 2021). However, during plot preparation for second seeding the accumulated PG in the banded plots was distributed over the entire plots, although minimum tillage was practiced. The second plowing of broadcasted plot also increases the contact P released from PG with soil particles and P reduces availability. The reduction of P availability around plant root zone during the second seeding decreased the wheat yield compared with first seeding under both methods of application.

Nitrogen uptake and crude protein contents of wheat

Increasing levels of PG application enhanced N uptake and crude proten contents. The high amounts of P and SO₄ ^− 2 released from PG might have been responsible for the increased uptake of N by the straw and grain of wheat. High concentrations of plant-available P and SO₄ ^− 2 in a soil enhance root and crop growth and thereby N uptake. These results are in line with the previous findings (Johar et al. 2002; Rafiullah et al. 2020) which stated that increments of available P in the soils increase grain and straw yields as well as N uptake. Similar to the growth of the plant, higher N uptakes were obtained from banded plots than where PG was broadcasted. This is due to higher release of P around the root in banding which enhances N uptake by straw and grain compared with the broadcast.

Similarly, the crude protein content of wheat grain was also increased with increasing level of PG application under both methods of application. The high amounts of P and SO₄ ^− 2 released from PG might have improved the grain protein content. The presence of a high source of soluble SO₄ ^− 2 in the soil solutions readily increases the growth and development of wheat (Caires et al. 2011b; Hrivna et al. 2015), thereby increasing the protein content of wheat. These results are in line with the previous finding (Mohammad et al. 2011; Pingoliya et al. 2015; Chandar et al. 2018). Assefa et al. (2021) and Jarvan et al. (2008). Banded method of PG application gave relatively more crude protein content than the broadcast which might be due to contains higher soluble SO₄ ^− 2 and P concentration in soil solution under the former application method which improves utilization and protein synthesis in the wheat. The value of crude protein content in wheat (Variety Fantale-2) from the present work meets the industry standard (CP > 12.5%) (De Vita et al. 2007).

Relationship between grain yield, P uptake, and soil available P

Application of PG had strong positive effects on soil P availability, and increased wheat growth as the soil P status was sufficient to sustain crop production. At all levels of PG soil available P increased and resulted in increased P uptake, mainly due to the enhanced wheat grain yield. Our results are in line with previous findings (Lee et al. 2009; Rafiullah et al. 2020). The increments in grain yield with increasing levels of PG was due to high P content in the PG-treated soil. The grain yield was decreased at every PG rate in the second cropping season due to decreasing soil available P. Additonally, strong positive linear relationships were observed between grain yield, P uptake, and soil available P. These results are in line with previous findings (Saha et al. 2014; Mahmood et al. 2020). The relationships were relatively stronger under banded compared to broadcasted plots in the first cropping season which might be due to increased concentration of available P in soil solutions in the banded plots. The broadcasting of PG decreases the soil available P around roots and P uptake. Thus, a linear increase in grain P contents with increasing soil-applied PG level would be associated with a higher supply of P.

The results showed that direct application of PG significantly reduced soil pH and ESP but increased exchangeable Ca, SO₄²⁻ and available P in the soil solution. Straw and grain yields of wheat were linearly increased with increasing PG level under both methods of application and planting times showing that PG rates higher than 200% GR should be used to obtain optimum yields and yield parameters of the test crop. The highest value of P, SO₄ ^− 2, crude protein, P uptake, grain and straw yield was recorded from the band compared with the broadcast method. Grain and straw yields were decreased at the second harvest as compared with the first under both methods of PG application due to the reduction of soil available P. The study revealed that sustainable utilization of PG on sodic soil has dual roles in providing P and SO₄ ^− 2 for growing crops and reclamation of sodic soils. Also, PG amendment supplemented with N fertilizer could satisfy fertilizer (NPS) requirements growing crops and hence reduce fertilizer costs. However, the experiment should be carried out using higher PG rates (more than 200% GR) on sodic soil at the site or other with similar conditions to draw sound conclusions.

Acknowledgments: The authors would like to thank Hawassa University and Hawassa College of Teacher Education for facilitating the study; and the Hawassa University-University of Saskatchewan Project bridging fund for the financial support. We are also grateful to the Office Cherifien des Phosphate (OCP S A.) in Addis Ababa for the provision of the PG material used in the study.

Author contributions: Haile Hasana undertook this study as part of a PhD program at Hawassa University, supervised by Sheleme Beyene and Alemayehu Kifilu. The first draft of the manuscript was written by Haile Hasana, and the authors were involved in the revision and editing of the draft manuscript and have approved the final manuscript.

Funding: The authors declare that no funds, grants, or other support were received during the preparation of this manuscript.

Declarations: The authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose.

Data Availability: The datasets analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Al-Enazy AA, Al-Barakah F, Al-Oud S, Usman A (2018) Effect of phosphogypsum application and bacteria co-inoculation on biochemical properties and nutrient availability to maize plants in saline soil. Archives Agro Soil Scie 64:1394–1406
Ali MS, Sutradhar A, Edano ML, Edwards JT, Girma K(2014) Response of winter wheat grain yield and phosphorus uptake to foliar phosphate fertilization.Inter. J. Agron.8
Alam MK, Bell RW, Salahin N, Pathan S, Mondol AT, Alam MJ, Rashid MH, Paul P, Hossain MI, Shil NC (2018) Banding of fertilizer improves phosphorus acquisition and yield of zero tillage maize by concentrating phosphorus in surface soil. Sustain 10:3234
Alemayehu K, Sheleme B, Jeff S (2016) Characterization of problem soils in and around the south-central Ethiopian Rift Valley. J Soil Scie Envir Management 7(11):191–203
Andrés-Barbieri P, Hernán RR, Fernanda C, Hernán EE (2014) Phosphorus placement affects on phosphorous recovery efficiency and grain yield of wheat under no-tillage in the Humid Pampas of Argentina. I J Agronomy. https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/507105
AOAC (1980) Official Methods of Analysis, 13th edn. Association of Official Analytical Chemists, Washington, D.C., p 1018
Ashenafi W, Nisaren B (2019) Evaluation of some Rhodes grass genotypes for their salt tolerance, biomass yield, and nutrient composition. Appl Sci 9(1):143
Assefa S, Haile W, Tena W (2021) Response of bread wheat to sulfur and phosphorus fertilizers in north-central Ethiopia. Agric Food Secur 10:39
Bairwa DD, Modhvadia JM, Bhadu V (2018) Response of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) to phosphorus and sulphur fertilization. Int J Pure Appl Biosci 6(6):354–357
Bouray M, Moir J, Condron L, Lehto N (2020) Lime Amendment of acid soils on the bioavailability of phosphorus and sulfur under lucerne (Medicago sativa). Plants 9:883
Caires EF, Maschietto EHG, Garbuio FJ, Churka S, Joris H, A W (2011b) Surface application of gypsum in low acidic oxisol under no-till cropping system. Scientia Agrico 68:209–216
Chandar J, Yogesh S, Jakhar RK, Sharma RK (2018) Effect of phosphorus, zinc and iron on yield and quality of wheat in western Rajasthan, India. Int J Curr Microbiol App Sci 7(3):2055–2062
CSA (2019) Agriculture sample survey 2018/2019: volume I report on area and production of major crops. 589 Statistical Bulletin. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Technical report
De Vita P, Di Paolo E, Fecondo G, Di Fonzo N, Pisante M (2007) No-tillage and conventional tillage effects on durum wheat yield, grain quality and soil moisture content in southern Italy. Soil Tillage Res 1:69–78
Dodd K, Guppy C, Lockwood P, Rochester I (2009) The effect of sodicity on cotton: Plant response to solutions containing high sodium concentrations. Plant Soil 330:239–249
Endovitsky AP, Minkina TM, Kalinitchenko VP (2015) Thermodynamic status of strontium in chernozem at the application of phosphogypsum. Biogeosystem Tech 4(6):345–362
FAO (2014) Agriculture Organization. The State of Food Insecurity in the World 2014. FAO, Rome, Italy
FAO, IFAD and WFP (2015) The State of Food Insecurity in the World 2015. Meeting the 2015 international hunger targets: taking stock of uneven progress. Rome, FAO
Fuleihan NF (2012) Phosphogypsum disposal-the pros and amp; cons of wet versus dry stacking. Procedia Eng 46:195–205
Gharaibeh MA, Rusan MJ, Eltaif NI, Shunnar OF (2014) Reclamation of highly calcareous saline-sodic soil using low-quality water and PG. Appl Water Sci 4:223–230
Gifole G, Sheleme B, Walelign W(2011) The Response of haricot bean to phosphorus application on Ultisols at Areka, Southern Ethiopia.J. Biol. Agric. Healthcare. 1(3)
Gupta PK(2000) Soil, Plant, Water and Fertilizer Analyses. Agrobis India. 438p
Habtamu AA (2013) Impact of Salinity on Tolerance, Vigor, and Seedling Relative Water Content of Haricot Bean (Phaseolus Vulgaris L.) Cultivars. J Plant Sciences 1(3):22–27
Haile H, Sheleme B, Alemayehu K, Selamyihun K(2022) Effect of phosphogypsum amendment on chemical properties of sodic soils at different incubation periods. Applied and Environmental Soil Science, vol. 2022, Article ID 9097994, 11 pages
Havlin JL, Tisdale SL, Nelson WL, Beaton JD (2017) Soil fertility and fertilizers an introduction to nutrient management. Eighth edition. Pearson India Education Services Pvt. Ltd. Page, p 201
Hentati O, Abrantes N, Caetano LA, Bouguerra S, Goncalves F, Römbke J, Pereira R (2015) Phosphogypsum as a soil fertilizer: Ecotoxicity of amended soil and elutriates to bacteria, invertebrates, algae and plants. J Haza Materials 294:80–89
Hrivna L, Kotková B, Bureþová I (2015) Effect of sulphur fertilization on yield and quality of wheat grain. Cereal Res Commun 43(2):344–352
Hussain N, Khan MB, Ahmad R (2008) Influence of phosphorus application and sowing time on the performance of wheat in calcareous soils. Int J Agric Biol 10:399–404
Jarvan M, Edesi L, Adamson A, Lukme L, Akk A (2008) The effect of Sulphur fertilization on yield, quality of protein, and baking properties of winter wheat. Agron Res 6/2:459–469
Johar A, Jehan B, Mohammad S, Sherin K, Wajid AS (2002) Uptake nitrogen is affected by various combinations of nitrogen and phosphorus. Asian J Plant Sciences 1:367–369
Khairu MA, Richard WB, Nazmus S, Shahab P, Mondol AT, Alam MJ, Rashid MH, Paul P, Hossain MI, Shil NC (2018) Banding of fertilizer improves phosphorus acquisition and yield of zero tillage maize by concentrating phosphorus in surface soil. Sustai 10:3234
Koopman C, Witkamp G (2000) Extraction of lanthanides from the phosphoric acid production process to gain a purified gypsum and a valuable lanthanide by-product. Hydrometallurgy 58:51–60
Kraska P, Andruszczak S, Gierasimiuk P, Rusecki H (2021) The effect of subsurface placement of mineral fertilizer on some soil properties under reduced tillage soybean cultivation. Agronomy 11:859
Lee CH, Ha BY, Lee YB, Kim PJ (2009) Effect of alkalized phosphogypsum on soil chemical and biological properties. Commun soil scie plant anal 40:2072–2086
Mahmood M, Tian Y, Ma Q, Ahmed W, Mehmood S, Hui X, Wang Z(2020) Changes in phosphorus fractions and its availability status about long-term p fertilization in Loess Plateau of China. Agronomy. 10(11): 1818
Mahmoud E, Ghoneim A, El Baroudy A, Abd El-Kader N, Ali Aldhumri S, Othman S (2021) Effects of phosphogypsum and water treatment residual application on key chemical and biological properties of clay soil and maize yield. Soil Use Manage 37:494–503
McKenzie NJ, Jacquier DJ, Isbell RF, Brown KL (2004) Australian soils and landscapes an illustrated compendium. CSIRO Publishing, Collingwood, Victoria
Mengel K, Kirkby EA, Kosegarten H, Appel T(2001) Nutrient Uptake and Assimilation. In Principles of Plant Nutrition; Springer: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany. 111–179
Mihratu A, Desta G, Tolessa D (2018) Performance of bread wheat genotypes under a different environment in lowland irrigated areas of Afar Region, Ethiopia. J Develop Agric Economics 13(17):927–933
Mohammad G, Khatoon Y, Mahmod R(2011) Effect of bio-phosphate and chemical phosphorus fertilizer accompanied with foliar application of micronutrients on yield, quality and phosphorus and zinc concentration of maize.J.Agric. Science.3(4)
Moussa B, Jim M, Leo C, Niklas L(2020) Impacts of phosphogypsum, soluble fertilizer, and lime amendment of acid soils on the bioavailability of phosphorus and sulphur under lucerne (Medicago sativa). Plants. 9: 883
Muhammad ZM, Muhammad A, Moazzam J, Maqshoof A(2014) Effect of different phosphorus levels on growth and yield of wheat under water stress conditions. J. Enviro. Earth Science. 4(19)
Murtaza G, Ghafoor A, Owens G, Qadir M, Kahlon UZ (2009) Environmental and economic benefits of saline-sodic soil reclamation using low quality water and soil amendments in conjunction with a rice-wheat cropping system. J Agron Crop Sci 195:124–136
Nayak AK, Mishra VK, Sharma DK, Jha SK, Singh CS, Shahabuddin M, Shahid M (2013) The efficiency of phosphogypsum and mined gypsum in reclamation and productivity of rice-wheat cropping system in sodic soil. Communi Soil Scie Plant Anal 44(5):909–921
Ng JF, Ahmed OH, Jalloh MB, Omar L, Kwan YM, Musah AA, Poong KH (2022) Soil nutrient retention and ph buffering capacity are enhanced by calciprill and sodium silicate. Agronomy 12:219
Nieman RH, Clark RA (1976) Interactive effects of salinity and phosphorus nutrition on concentrations of phosphate and phosphate esters in mature photosynthesizing corn leaves. Plant Physiol 57:157–161
Olsen SR, Cole CV, Watanabe FS, Dean LA (1954) Estimation of available phosphorus in soil by extraction with sodium bicarbonate. USDA cir, p 939
Randhawa PS, Arora CL (2000) Phosphorus-sulfur interaction affects dry matter yield and nutrient uptake by wheat. J Indian Soc Soil Sci 48:536–544
Phogat M, Rai AP, Kumar S(2018) Interaction effect of phosphorus and sulphur application on nutrient uptake, yield, and yield attributing parameters of a black gram [Vigna mungo (L.) Hepper ] Legume Res.-An Int. J.212–220
Pingoliya KK, Mathur AK, Dotaniya ML, Dotaniya CK (2015) Impact of phosphorus and iron on protein and chlorophyll content in chickpea. Legume Res 38(4):558–560
Purdy R, Langemeier M (2018) International benchmarks for wheat production. Farmdoc Daily, vol 8. Department of Agricultural and Consumer Economics, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 124, Champaign
Qadir M, Schubert S (2002) Degradation processes and nutrient constraints in sodic soils. Land Degrad Dev 13:275–294
Qadir M, Oster JD, Schubert S, Noble AD, Sahrawatk KL(2007) Phytoremediation of Sodic and Saline-Sodic Soils.Advances in Agronomy.96
Qureshi AS, Ertebo T, Mehansiwala M (2018) Prospects of alternative copping systems for salt-affected soils in Ethiopia. J Soil Scie Enviro Management 9(7):98–107
Rafiullah MJ, Dost K, Shah M F (2020) Phosphorus nutrient management through synchronization of application methods and rates in wheat and maize crops. Plants 9:1389
Rahim A, Ranjah AM, Rahamtullah Waraich EA (2010) Effect of phosphorus application and irrigation scheduling on wheat yield and phosphorus use efficiency. Soil Sci Soc Pak 29:15–22
Raja Z, Ali S, Ikram N, Mounir B, Boubaker E (2020) Tunisian phosphogypsum tailings: Assessment of leaching behavior for an integrated management approach. Environ Eng Res 25(3):345–355
Rengasamy P (2016) Soil chemistry factors confounding crop salinity tolerance-a review. Agronomy 6:53
Rentería-Villalobos M, Vioque I, Mantero J, Manjón G (2010) Radiological, chemical and morphological characterizations of phosphate rock and phosphogypsum from phosphoric acid factories in SW Spain. J Hazard Mater 181:193–203
Rutherford PM, Dudas MJ, Arocena JM (1996) Heterogeneous distribution of radionuclides, barium and strontium in phosphogypsum by-product. Sci Total Environ 180:201–209
Saha S, Saha B, Murmu S, Pati S, Deb Roy P (2014) Grain yield and phosphorus uptake by wheat as influenced by long-term phosphorus fertilization. Afr J Agri Resea 9(6):607–612
Saqib B, Shazma A, Ahmad Q, Sarfraz Wajid K, Muhamad I (2015) Response of wheat crop to phosphorus levels and application methods. J Enviro Earth Science 5:9
SAS (2004) Statistical Analysis System), SAS/STAT Software Syntax, Version 9.0. SAS Institute, Cary, NC, USA, p 751
Setia RK, Sharma KN (2007) Dynamics of forms of inorganic phosphorus during wheat growth in a continuous maize-wheat cropping system. J Indian Soc Soil Sci 55(2):139–146
Shahid SA, Zaman M, Heng L(2018) Soil Salinity: Historical Perspectives and a World Overview of the Problem, in Guideline for Salinity Assessment, Mitigation and Adaptation Using Nuclear and Related Techniques.Springer I. Publi. Cham, Switzerland.43–53
Sisay A, Moltote B, Fantahun A (2021) Reclamation and amelioration of saline-sodic soil using gypsum and halophytic grasses: Case of Golina-Addisalem irrigation scheme, Raya Kobo Valley, Ethiopia. Cogent Food and Agriculture 7:1
Van R (1993) Procedures for soil analysis. 4thed. International Soil Reference and Information Center, Netherlands
Wahid F, Fahad S, Danish S, Adnan M, Yue Z, Saud S, Siddiqui M, Brtnicky M, Hammerschmiedt T, Datta R (2020) ). Sustainable management with mycorrhizae and phosphate solubilizing bacteria for enhanced phosphorus uptake in calcareous soils. Agriculture 10:334
Wang SJ, Chen Q, Li Y, Zhuo YQ, Xu LZ (2017) Research on saline-alkali soil amelioration with FGD gypsum. Resour. Conserv Recycl 121:82–92
Wang L, Seki K, Miyazaki T, Ishihama Y (2009) The causes of soil alkalinization in the Songnen Plain of Northeast China. Paddy Water Environ 7(3):259–270
Weil RR, Brady NC(2017) The Nature and Properties of Soils, Fifteenth Edition, Global Edition. Page 801
Yazdanpanah N, Pazira E, Neshat A, Mahmoodabadi M, Sinobas LR (2013) Reclamation of calcareous saline-sodic soil with different amendments: Impact on nitrogen, phosphorous, and potassium redistribution and microbial respiration. Agr Water Manage 120:39–45
Yun-jia W, Da-chao Z, Da-jun L, Yong-feng L, Xing-feng W (2009) environment cumulative effects of coal exploitation and its assessment. Procedia Earth Planet Sci 1:1072–1080
Yurkova RE (2012) Methods for heavy metal inactivation and soil fertility restoration on irrigated lands. Sci J of Russian 1(05):1–12
Zewdie HS (2022) Wheat policy, wheat yield and production in Ethiopia. Cogent Econ Finance 10:1
Zhao Y, Wang S, Li Y, Liu J, Zhuo Y, Chen H, Wang J, Xu L, Sun Z (2018) Extensive reclamation of saline-sodic soils with flue gas desulfurization gypsum on the Songnen Plain, Northeast China. Geoderma 321:52

Download PDF

Version 1

posted

You are reading this latest preprint version

Influence of Phosphogypsum on The Performance of Wheat (Triticum Aestivum L.) and Properties of Sodic Soil of Alage, Central Rift Valley of Ethiopia

Status:

Version 1

Abstract

Aims

Methods

Results

Conclusions

Figures

Introduction

Materials And Methods

Description of the study area

Experimental design and treatments

Experimental procedures and management practices

2.4. Data collection and measurements

Analysis of PG-treated soils and plant tissue

Statistical analysis

Results

Effects of PG amendment on chemical properties of sodic soil

Yield and yield parameters of wheat as influenced PG amendments

Grain yield

Straw yield

Phosphorus uptake and its concentrations in grain and straw after the first planting

Nitrogen uptake and crude protein contents of wheat after the first planting

Relationships between grain yield, P uptake, and soil available P

Discussion

Effects of PG amendment on chemical properties of the sodic soil

Grain and straw yields of wheat as influenced by PG amendments

Phosphorus uptake and its concentrations in grain and straw at the first planting

Nitrogen uptake and crude protein contents of wheat

Relationship between grain yield, P uptake, and soil available P

Conclusion

Declarations

References

Status:

Version 1