Green Synthesis of SiO 2 NPs Promote Vigna radiata L Germination, Membrane Damage, Antioxidant enzymes and Physiological activities

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-1996891/v1

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Green Synthesis of SiO 2 NPs Promote Vigna radiata L Germination, Membrane Damage, Antioxidant enzymes and Physiological activities

https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-1996891/v1

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In agriculture sector demand for nanotechnology-based products in current years, have led to the increasing use of nanoparticles (NPs). Biologically prepared NPs have gained a lot of attraction due to ecofriendly, less expensive and biocompatible process, therefore, Current work was design to investigate the green synthesized SiO₂ NPs on Vigna radiata L. physiological and biochemical analysis. Six days old plants (two leaf stage) exposed to SiO₂ NPs at 2, 20, 200 and 2000 ppm. Significantly increased in plant length and weight at on all concentrations at different intervals except 20 ppm of SiO₂ NPs reduced plant length and weight. However, the antioxidant enzymes at 20 ppm treated plant showed several effects. The production of ascorbate peroxidase and catalase increased as compared to control. Peroxidase level was initially increased but then reduced later, superoxide dismutase also reduced as compared to control. FT-IR at 20 ppm treated plant exhibited the increase in protein, decrease in phenolics and Bromo also increase which means alkaloid will produce to overcome the stress. Evans blue staining and membrane damage quantification also indicated the cell death at 20 ppm as compared to control at all time intervals. These results suggest that SiO₂ NPs exhibit positive effects at higher concentrations and slightly reduce the growth at (20 ppm) mild concentrations. Si uptake and antioxidant enzymes also decrease at 20 ppm, Evans blue staining and quantification indicated about the slight damage.

SiO2 NPs

Vigna radiata L.

Enzymes activity analysis

FT-IR

cell death

Nanoparticles as widespread class of the materials which include tiny substances having dimension < 100nm [1]. Nanoparticles can be employed for gas sensing [2], drug delivery [3], CO₂ capturing [4], biological and chemical sensing for many other claims [5, 6]. These materials are of great interest for researchers due to such unique characteristics [7, 8]. Nanoparticles can be synthesized through biological synthesis using micro-organisms [9], fungus[10] and plant extracts[11–13]. Synthesis of nanoparticles by these eco-friendly methods is developing into a significant field of nanotechnology, having various applications [14–16]. SiO₂ NPs are very effective and can be prepared by different method in various shapes, sizes and properties with multiple surfaces which can be easily changes They can be produced in a variety of shapes, sizes and surfaces to attain the several purposes in medical [17], agriculture [18], electronics [19] and cosmetics [20]. Inclusion of nanoparticles in the ecosystem specially in the plant as bioaccumulation play key role for their mortality or natality[21, 22]. Studies revealed that, nanoparticles enter plant’s metabolic pathway and help with disease resistance, better growth, and high yield[23, 24]. Silicon (Si) has numerous constructive impacts on plants growth, growing under various types of stresses[25]. Si significantly improves resistance ability of plants against several stresses like drought[26], nutrient imbalances, higher radiation, metal toxicity and higher salinity [27, 28]. Heavy metals cause oxidative harm to plants by producing an increased level of reactive oxygen species. Superoxide dismutase is an important enzymatic antioxidant that catalysis the dismutation of superoxide radicle to molecular oxygen and to less reactive species such as hydrogen peroxide[29, 30]. It is providing defense against reactive oxygen species. However, to promote and boos the level of these enzymes and defense system, there is an urgent need to explore such a NPs which can enhance the growth, enzymes activity and acts as biological catalyst. SiO₂ NPs have extensive applications in agriculture i.e., to produce fertilizers effective for crops [31, 32]. Previous studies described that nanoparticle has shown various properties with relevant to size, morphology, exposure time, concentration, mode of application and nature concluded the negative or positive effects of these nanoparticles on plants [33, 34].

Mung bean is a significant pulse crop belonging to family Leguminosae. Besides its nutritional value mung bean fix the atmospheric nitrogen that helps in improving the fertility of soil [35–37]. Pest-insects which cause crop damages and numerous diseases are the core constrictions in increasing the mung bean yield [38]. Otherwise, present research can assist in improving the mung bean yield at advanced scales. In Pakistan because of showing positive impact on the production of mung bean, it recognizes as an important cash crop. Hence, by the benefits of alternative cropping and crop rotation new mung bean varieties or cultivars developed with improved yield and significant resistance against multiple stresses.

In the present research SiO₂ NPs were synthesize by green synthesis through Pongamia pinnata leaves. Though, very few investigations have focused on the role of SiO₂ NPs in mung bean at physiological level. Likewise, at molecular level the interaction patterns between biological systems of plants and nanoparticles are chiefly mysterious. Present investigation is designed to investigate the interactive pattern between SiO₂ NPs and mung bean at physiological and biochemical level either to enhance or reduce its growth.

2.1. Synthesis of Nanoparticles

The nanoparticle was synthesized using Pongamia pinnata leaves extract through green synthesis. Freshly prepared plant extract (Pongamia pinnata leaves) was added to 1M solution of Silicon dioxide heated at approximately 70°C till precipitates appeared then temperature reduced to 60°C and kept the solution for 90 min. On completion of reaction centrifuged sample for 10 min at 6,000 rpm, supernatant was removed pellet was collected and allowed to precipitate at 350°C. The characterization of SiO₂ NPs was performed by using X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis (Thermo scientific ARL™ EQUINOX 100 X-ray Diffractrometer, Waltham, US), UV Vis spectrophotometer (Thermo scientific Multiskan Go, Vantaa, Finland), Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) with EDS (Thermo scientific Axia chemiSEM, Ireland).

2.2. Preparation of seeds

The healthy seeds of mung bean were obtained from National Agriculture Research Centre, Islamabad-Pakistan. Mung bean seeds were surface sterilized using sodium hypochlorite solution [3 percent (v/v)] for 15 min, rinsed three times and soaked overnight in distilled water.

2.3. Seed germination and SiO₂ NPs treatments

The germinated seeds were sown in pots containing acid washed sterilized sand. Twenty seeds were sown in each pot. After these pots were kept in growth Chamber at 25°C under Sixty-five Percent relative humidity, 8 ± 16 h of dark/light period for six days. Stress was applied at sixth day of growth (two leaf stage). Nanoparticles was suspended in deionized water to make the following concentrations: 2, 20, 200 and 2000 ppm. These solutions were sonicated for 15 min in sonicator (Elmasonic Easy 30H, Germany) before use.

2.4. Morphological Parameters

The control and different concentrations of SiO₂ NPs treated plants were carefully removed from the pots at 7th, 8^th, and 9th growth day, then compared in triplicates. Plant length was measured using measuring steel ruler. Fresh weight of root, shoot and whole plant was measured using weighing balance (AS 220.R2 PLUS Analytical Balance – Radwag, Poland).

2.5 Elemental Analysis

The metal (Si) content was analyzed for the control and plant grown for mild concentrations of SiO₂ NPs (i.e., 20 ppm). Fresh roots were taken and put into oven at 65°C for 72 hours. 100 mg of dried root powder was digested in 3:1 nitric-perchloric acid (HNO3-HClO4) solution, after this completely digested material was filtered with Whatmann filter paper and final volume was raised up to 50 mL with distilled. Then clarified samples were used for the determination of desired heavy metals by using Spectrometer (AA240FS Fast Sequential Atomic Absorption Spectrometer, California, US) from triplicates.

2.6 Enzymes Assay and Extraction

100 mg fresh roots were powdered in liquid nitrogen and homogenized with phosphate buffer (pH 6.8, 0.1 M), centrifuged at 4°C at 12000 rpm. The clear supernatant was taken as the enzyme source. CAT activity was determined in terms of decrease in absorbance due to dissociation of H₂O₂ which was recorded at 240 nm using an extinction coefficient of 39.4 mM¹cm¹ (Aebi, 1984). APX activity was determined according to the method [39]. Measurements of peroxidase (POD) activity was conducted according to the method [40]. The superoxide dismutase (SOD) was determined based on the method of respectively.

2.7. Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy Analysis (FT-IR)

The roots of control and SiO₂ NPs (20 ppm) treated plant were used for FT-IR (Thermo Scientific iS10 FTIR Spectrometer, Belgium) analysis as described as previously [41].

2.8. Histochemical Staining and Membrane Damage Quantification

For the quantification of membrane damage from roots sample,100 mg root samples were separately grinded in mortar and pestle by adding 1 ml sodium dodecylsulphate (1 percent) used as cell lyser buffer for breaking membranous structures. Centrifuged for five minutes at 8000 rpm. Supernatant was prudently removed, and optical density was measured at 600 nm by using spectrophotometer (Thermo scientific Multiskan Go, Vantaa, Finland). Histochemical staining, cell death was determined by Evans blue staining as described [42].

2.9. Statistical Analysis

Statistical analysis was performed with the SPSS software (version 20.0j; IBM, Tokyo, Japan). Statistical significance of the data was assessed by completely randomized designed analysis of variance. Tukey’s test was used to compare means at p < 0.05 level (n = 3).

3.1. Synthesis and Characterization of SiO₂ NPs

The SiO₂ NPs were prepared using Pongamia pinnata leaves extract as reducing agent via eco-friendly biological process, characterization by different microscopy techniques and their promoting effect on mung was observed as shown in Fig. 1. Experimental design to study the effects of SiO₂ NPs on Vigna radiata L. Six-day old Vigna radiata were treated without or with 2, 20, 200, 2000 ppm of SiO₂ NPs for 0, 1, 2, and 3 days. The length and weight of root and shoot was measured at the indicated treatment points. Based on results FT-IR, elemental analysis by atomic absorption, enzyme activity analysis and membrane damage quantification of root were analyzed using spectrophotometer.

The UV Vis absorption of green synthesized SiO₂ NPs was taken between 200–800 nm that shows absorption peak at ~ 380 nm in red color which might be exist due to involvement of local density status of silica nanoparticles as shown in Fig. 2(a). There was no any peak for control group as it has only plant extract in black color peak. Later on, the nature of NPs was further characterized for knowing the amorphous or crystals nature, The XRD spectrum of green synthesized SiO₂ NPs shows sharp band with reflection at 2θ representing that synthesized material is composed of SiO₂ and crystalline in the nature Fig. 2(b). The crystalline size of SiO₂ NPs was calculated using the Scherrer equation

D = (K λ / β Cos θ)

Where D is the size of the particle (nm), k is Scherrer constant (k = 0.94), X-ray wavelength (1.54178 Å) was given by λ, β is full width at half maximum (FWHM) of the diffraction peak, and θ is the angle of diffraction. Finally, the average crystalline size of SiO₂ NPs was found to be 58.6 nm. SEM Micrographic image of SiO₂ NPs showed like cotton shaped Fig. 2(c). The size and structure of nanoparticles, the composition was qualitatively analyzed by EDX presented in Fig. 2(d). The nanoparticles are clearly composed of Si and O elements. Other elements were present in the SiO₂ nanoparticles due to the green synthesis through Pongamia pinnata.

3.2. SiO₂ NPs Effects on Plants Growth

The plant length, root, shoot and fresh plant weight of the control and different concentration of SiO₂ NPs exposed plants were analyzed after six days of growth. Fig (a) presents the morphological and shape of mung plant influence by the various concentration of green synthesized NPs as compared to control. Fresh plant, root and shoot weight was significantly increased in plants treated with 2, 200 and 2000 ppm of SiO₂ NPs at all time intervals Fig (a-d). However, the growth was slightly reduced at 20 ppm as compared to control (Figs. 3b, 3c and 3d). most probably the reason these NPs were affecting the less promoting factor. Initially plant length was slightly decreased at 20 ppm as compared to control, then significant increase was observed at all treatments as compared to control at all time intervals (Fig. 3e). Analysis of variance showed both days and concentrations have significant effect on plants length and biomass treated with SiO₂ NPs stress (Table 1a, 1b, 1c and 1d).

Table 1

Analysis of variance of *Vigna radiate* L. of SiO₂ NPs treatments.
(a)	Source	df	F value	(b)	Source	df	F value
	Treatment (T)	4	58.5***		Treatment (T)	4	55.2***
	Days (D)	2	23.2***		Days (D)	2	96.2***
	Interaction (Tx D)	8	1.18^NS		Interaction (Tx D)	8	3.36**
(c)	Treatment(T)	4	92.8***	(d)	Treatment (T)	4	30.6***
	Days(D)	2	107.18***		Days(D)	2	66.8***
	Interaction (TxD)	8	3.56**		Interaction (TxD)	8	1.65^NS
Data was collected from each independent replicate (n = 3). ANOVA (Analysis of Variance) of data for CRD (completely randomized design) was performed using SPSS Software. Asterisks indicate significant difference as compared to the control (p < 0.05, p < 0.01* and p < 0.001*), NS = non-significant (p > 0.05), df = degree of freedom (a) root weight (mg), (b) shoot weight (mg), (c) plant weight (mg) and (d)** plant length (cm).

3.3 Enzymes Assay and Extraction

Application of SiO₂ NPs revealed different effects on antioxidant enzymes with different time point and nature of enzymes.

We have only tested the minimum concentration of NPs on different days. Catalase activity was decrease on third days due to continual of stress suggest that it will decreases the catalytic process which lesser the production of various metabolites in the plant Fig. 4 (a). In case of ascorbate peroxidase activity (APX) the function of enzymes is enhanced at 20 ppm SiO₂ NPs stress as compared to control at respective days (1st, 2^nd, and 3rd day after applying NPs Fig. 4(b). While superoxide dismutase activity (SOD) reduced at 20 ppm as compared to control and peroxidase activity (POD) increase at Day 1 then gradually decreased as compared to control (Fig. 4c, 4d).

3.4 Elemental Analysis and (FT-IR) analysis

Elemental analysis (Si) of seedlings when exposed to 20 ppm SiO₂ NPs stress at 1st day after applying stress was 2.01 ± 0.02 and control was 2.70 ± 0.08. Similarly at respective days uptake of Si was slightly decrease at 20 ppm SiO₂ NPs treatment as compared to control Fig. 5 (a,b).

Table 2a and 2b show the compound present in control and 20 ppm SiO₂ NPs treated Vigna radiata L. plant in 515–4000 cm^− 1 region. The frequency 3289.92, 2921 and 610 cm^− 1 represent the ─ C ≡ C ─ H: C─ H Bond which show the dominance of lipids in control plant. While, in SiO₂ NPs treated plant Lipid content decrease. Further explain in similar way that protein content increase under stress while phenolics content decrease. Bromo also increase which means alkaloid will produce under stress to overcome the stress Fig. 5 (c).

Table 2 FT-IR peaks shows major compounds and functional groups present in Vigna radiata L. (a) Control (b) treated with 20 ppm SiO₂ NPs.

(a)

Absorbance (cm¹)	Bond	Functional group	Major compound
3289.92	C ≡ C ─ H: C ─ H Stretch	Alkynes	Lipids
2921	C─ H Stretch	Alkanes	Lipids
1618.15	N ─ H Bond	Amines	Proteins
1412.17	C ─ C Stretch in ring	Aromatic	Phenolics
1030.79	C ─ N Stretch	Aliphatic Amines	Amino acid
875.15	C─ H Loop	Aromatics	Phenolics
579.09	C─ Br Stretch	Alkyl Halides	Bromo compound
563.53	C─ Br Stretch	Alkyl Halides	Bromo compound
543	C─ Br Stretch	Alkyl Halides	Bromo compound
571.85	C─ Br Stretch	Alkyl Halides	Bromo compound
555.3	C─ Br Stretch	Alkyl Halides	Bromo compound
610.77	─ C ≡ C ─ H: C─ H Bond	Alkynes	Lipids
531.37	C─ Br Stretch	Alkyl Halides	Bromo compound
519.76	C─ Br Stretch	Alkyl Halides	Bromo compound

(b)

Absorbance (cm¹)	Bond	Functional group	Major compound
3289.92	C ≡ C ─ H: C ─ H Stretch	Alkynes	Lipids
2921	C─ H Stretch	Alkanes	Lipids
1618.15	N ─ H Bond	Amines	Proteins
1412.17	C ─ C Stretch in ring	Aromatic	Phenolics
1030.79	C ─ N Stretch	Aliphatic Amines	Amino acid
875.15	C─ H Loop	Aromatics	Phenolics
579.09	C─ Br Stretch	Alkyl Halides	Bromo compound
563.53	C─ Br Stretch	Alkyl Halides	Bromo compound
543	C─ Br Stretch	Alkyl Halides	Bromo compound
571.85	C─ Br Stretch	Alkyl Halides	Bromo compound
555.3	C─ Br Stretch	Alkyl Halides	Bromo compound
610.77	─ C ≡ C ─ H: C─ H Bond	Alkynes	Lipids
531.37	C─ Br Stretch	Alkyl Halides	Bromo compound
519.76	C─ Br Stretch	Alkyl Halides	Bromo compound

3.5 Histochemical Staining and Membrane Damage

Cell death was evaluated in Vigna radiata L. roots for 20 ppm after applying SiO₂ NPs stress. In below mentioned pictures the dark blue staining depicted more cell damage in Vigna radiata L. at 20 ppm as compared to control. However, a decline was observed when mung bean was treated with 20 ppm concentration of Sio₂ NPs Fig. 6 (a-d). Roots of sample were washed two times and immersed in Evans blue solution for fifteen minutes.

The stained root samples were immediately washed, and Transverse sections of roots viewed under microscope in Fig. 6 (a) stained root of control, Fig. 6 (b) stained root treated with Sio₂ NPs, Fig. 6 (c) Control, Fig. 6 (d) sample treated with SiO₂ NPs. Cell deaths were evaluated in Vigna radiata L. roots at 20 ppm for 1st, 2^nd, and 3rd after applying SiO₂ NPs as compared to control. The data is presented as the mean ± S.E. from three independent replicates (n = 3). Mean values in each point with different letters are significantly different at the 5% level according to Tukey’s multiple range tests.

Nanotechnology has potential to increase economic growth, food security and agricultural productivity [43, 44]. Though, the mode of accomplishment of nanoparticles on plant development and growth is still too scarce. Green synthesis of nanoparticles has gain attention due to surface coating of active compounds from plant reducing agent and play key role in showing significant difference in the property of nanomaterials [7, 45]. Recently, many researchers have prepared nanoparticles via green process and chemical process and have shown the difference [46]. As we know that seed germination stipulates an appropriate foundation for plant yield, growth, and development [47]. In the present experiment seedlings exposed to various green synthesized SiO₂ NPs nanoparticles concentrations 2, 20, 200 and 2000 ppm. Morphological results demonstrate that SiO₂ NPs application on Vigna radiata considerably increased root weight, shoot weight, plant weight and plant length as compared to control, at three respective days after applying treatment. At 20 ppm the weight decreased according to control at respective days. Current work has also supported the work earlier reported which showed the validity of experiment and our investigation process [48, 49]. It has been observed that the effect of SiO₂ NPs (size: 12 nm diameter) on growth of tomato (Lycopersicum esculentum Mill.) [50]. Furthermore, Significantly improved growth was observed in all the seed characteristics like germination rate, seed vigor, and weight at 8 g/l. Application of SiO₂ NPs (40 ppm) on rice plant, increased the dry matter weight of root (19 percent) and shoot (42 percent), root volume and root length of rice crop [51]. While opposite result was found in Bt –transgenic cotton when different concentrations of SiO₂ NPs (0, 10, 100, 500 and 2000 mgL^− 1) were applied [52]. It significantly decreased the root and shoot biomasses and it also affected the contents of Mg, Cu in shoots and Na in transgenic cotton root. Whole plant length of mung bean was increased at all treatments (2ppm, 20ppm, 200ppm and 2000ppm) at respective days as compared to control. Therefore, the results of the present study suggest that SiO₂ NPs treatment provided an appropriate environment for the germination of seeds but slightly reduced the growth at 20 ppm. Elemental analysis (Si) of seedlings when exposed to 20 ppm SiO₂ NPs stress at 1st day after applying stress was 2.01 ± 0.02 and control was 2.70 ± 0.08. Similarly at respective days uptake of Si was slightly decrease at 20 ppm SiO₂ NPs treatment as compared to control. In addition, nano-SiO₂ intermediates the synthesis of amino acids, protein, and phenols, as well as nutrient uptake.

Application of SiO₂ NPs revealed different effects on antioxidant enzymes. Catalase is an important antioxidant enzyme which prevent plants from oxidative damage as a reactive species scavenger. An increase in ascorbate peroxidase and catalase was observed at 20 ppm SiO₂ NPs stress as compared to control. Increase in catalase suggests the removal of toxic peroxidase and H₂O₂. While superoxide dismutase reduced at 20 ppm as compared to control and peroxidase increase at 1st Day after treatment then gradually decreased further as compared to control. The trend of antioxidant enzymes in mung bean was APX ≥ CAT ≥ POD ≥ SOD. All activities of antioxidant enzymes showed a considerable increase in the presence of silica ions as reported[53]. However, according to Li et al. the seedlings treated with nano-SiO₂ exhibited negative effects on plant growth, H₂O₂ levels, lipid peroxidation, and reduced electrolyte leakage[54]. These effects might reproduce increased activity of antioxidant enzymes (APX, SOD, POD, GR, and CAT). There were fewer reports to investigate the metabolic changes under the SiO₂ NPs exposure on mung bean using metabolomics technologies. In this study FT-IR was used to provide molecular information to compare SiO₂ NPs at 20 ppm treated plant with control. The frequencies represent the ─ C ≡ C ─ H: C─ H Bond which show the dominance of lipids in control plant. While, in SiO₂ NPs treated plant Lipid content decrease. Further explain in similar way that protein content increase under stress while phenolics content decrease. Bromo also increase which means alkaloid will produce to overcome the stress at 20 ppm. The present results of Evans blue staining indicate more cell death was observed in SiO₂ NPs treated plants at 20 ppm as compared to control.

The present investigation suggests that the growth was significantly increased according to increasing concentration of SiO₂ NPs. At 20 ppm the effect was non-significant at morphological level however, silicon uptake is also reduced at 20 ppm as compared to control (without treatment). The metabolic (FT-IR) and antioxidant activities at 20 ppm was different in mung bean under SiO₂ NPs application which may be helpful to overcome the stress at 20 ppm. Evans blue staining and quantification also depict the damage at 20 ppm. Further this study will offer a new platform to evaluate the pathway involved in the susceptibility and tolerance in mung bean under SiO₂ NPs stress. In general, there was a substantial response by Vigna radiata L. to SiO₂ NPs introducing the possibility of a new method to overcome challenges with plants germination.

Acknowledgment.

The authors are thankful for the Quaidi Azam university and The islamia University of Bahawalpur for supporting and provide lab for experiments.

Authors Contributions

SZ and GM conceived and designed the research; SZ and JS performed the experiments. SZ, SKC and TT, SK performed data analysis; SZ and GM wrote the manuscript; MH and GM reviewed and edited the manuscript; All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Consent for publication All authors were consented for publication

Data Availability Not applicable.

Declarations of Interest There is no conflict of interest among all authors.

Ethics Approval Not applicable.

Consent to Participate Not applicable.

Competing Interests Not applicable

Funding No funding available for this work.

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Green Synthesis of SiO 2 NPs Promote Vigna radiata L Germination, Membrane Damage, Antioxidant enzymes and Physiological activities

Status:

Version 1

Abstract

Figures

1. Introduction

2. Materials And Method

2.1. Synthesis of Nanoparticles

2.2. Preparation of seeds

2.3. Seed germination and SiO₂ NPs treatments

2.4. Morphological Parameters

2.5 Elemental Analysis

2.6 Enzymes Assay and Extraction

2.7. Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy Analysis (FT-IR)

2.8. Histochemical Staining and Membrane Damage Quantification

2.9. Statistical Analysis

3. Results

3.1. Synthesis and Characterization of SiO₂ NPs

3.2. SiO₂ NPs Effects on Plants Growth

3.3 Enzymes Assay and Extraction

3.4 Elemental Analysis and (FT-IR) analysis

3.5 Histochemical Staining and Membrane Damage

4. Discussion

5. Conclusions

Declarations

References

Additional Declarations

Status:

Version 1

Green Synthesis of SiO 2 NPs Promote Vigna radiata L Germination, Membrane Damage, Antioxidant enzymes and Physiological activities

Status:

Version 1

Abstract

Figures

1. Introduction

2. Materials And Method

2.1. Synthesis of Nanoparticles

2.2. Preparation of seeds

2.3. Seed germination and SiO2 NPs treatments

2.4. Morphological Parameters

2.5 Elemental Analysis

2.6 Enzymes Assay and Extraction

2.7. Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy Analysis (FT-IR)

2.8. Histochemical Staining and Membrane Damage Quantification

2.9. Statistical Analysis

3. Results

3.1. Synthesis and Characterization of SiO2 NPs

3.2. SiO2 NPs Effects on Plants Growth

3.3 Enzymes Assay and Extraction

3.4 Elemental Analysis and (FT-IR) analysis

3.5 Histochemical Staining and Membrane Damage

4. Discussion

5. Conclusions

Declarations

References

Additional Declarations

Status:

Version 1

2.3. Seed germination and SiO₂ NPs treatments

3.1. Synthesis and Characterization of SiO₂ NPs

3.2. SiO₂ NPs Effects on Plants Growth