Naturalization of the Refugee South Sudanese Lost Boys in the Greater Kansas City Area.

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-2007759/v1

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Naturalization of the Refugee South Sudanese Lost Boys in the Greater Kansas City Area.

https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-2007759/v1

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Granting American citizenship to immigrants by the United States Government remains to be the most significant indicator of apparent assimilation, other than marrying an American. In the past, the American political structure has promoted assimilation of immigrants into the mainstream society. For the refugee Sudanese Lost Boys in this study, some have either acquired permanent residency or U.S. citizenship by naturalization. During and after the interviews with the participants in this study, I was struck by the process and pattern under which these Boys acquired permanent residency or citizenship though resettled nearly the same time.

The study found, one of the most important factors that influenced acquisition of citizenship was social/economic. After more than a decade of resettlement, there was significant reverse trend in terms of acquisition of social/economic capital of those resettled as minors over those resettled as legal adults. The impact of their arbitrary assigned ages (minor’s vs Legal adults) proved problematic for most of the Boys; younger Boys did not enter the job market at a “low” level. The legal adults started earning an income, to the envy of minors who were not allowed to work at the time of their resettlement but as time went by there started to emerge a reverse trend of acquisition of capital.

Refugees

Legal Adults

Unaccompanied Minors

Naturalization

South Sudanese Lost Boys

Brief History of the Sudan

Sudan has continuously sustained civil wars amongst its demographic/religious/racial groups for over four decades since its independence from Great Britain in 1956 (Werner, Anderson, & Wheeler, 2001). According to a report published by UNICEF in 2001, the conflict can be traced back to an event in 1983, when President Nimeiri chose to stop honoring the Addis Ababa Agreement, effectively ending the regional autonomy of the South where the African animists and Christian population are located. The conflict of 1983 triggered the exodus of the young South Sudanese Boys commonly known as the “Lost Boys.” Many South Sudanese refugees dreamt of returning to their ‘motherland’ (Sudan Tribune-BBC News, 2011). However, this dream was short lived. Before most could set foot in their “motherland,” a major obstacle to their return emerged. In December 2013, the South Sudan (newest country in the world) plunged into another conflict between the Southerners (Dinka and Nuer tribal/ethnic groups). This conflict has been termed a ‘civil war’ by some international monitoring agencies (The Economist, 2013). Once again, hope of returning home to South Sudan for the Lost Boys was lost.

This study is about the refugee South Sudanese Boys named the Lost Boys and their resettlement processes in the United States. The Sudanese Lost Boys had walked nearly 1000 miles in Africa to escape war in Sudan before they were rescued by the international agencies. The Boys had walked to Ethiopia from their country Sudan escaping ragging war. The Sudanese government military had targeted these Boys presuming them to be future enemy combatants. They stayed briefly in Ethiopia for about ten years after which the Ethiopian rebel group the Derg overthrew the government of Mengistu Haille Marriam. They expelled the Boys citing their allegiance to the old regime forcing them to walk back to Sudan. On arrival in Sudan they found war that they had escaped still ravaging. They turned cause towards the south ending up in Kenya. It was after arriving in Kenya that they were taken care of by the international agencies at Kakuma refugee camp. In early 2000 the United States government decided and planned to resettle the Boys in the U.S. Initially 3500 Boys were resettled but then 9/11 of 2001 terrorist attack in the U.S halted the resettlement program. Some of those who had been resettled in 2000 have changed their refugee status to naturalized citizens.

The Research Question

The U.S Fourteenth Amendment of the Constitution provides the legal framework under which individuals of foreign countries can be naturalized. Further, in 1945, President Harry Truman signed a bill that gave displaced people and refugees’ priority to become U.S naturalized citizens over other immigrants. The central research question investigated in this study is this:

What are processes and experiences of acquiring U.S citizenship for the South Sudanese Lost Boys after resettlement in 2000?

The Resettlement Program

The resettlement and eventually integration of about 3600 Sudanese Lost Boys by the U.S government and Red Cross in 2000 was aimed at providing the Lost Boys with education and an environment in which they would overcome trauma (Bixler, 2005). In the process, they would also be shielded from being victims of child soldiering in Sudan (Chanoff, 2004¶ 1). The recruitment exercise was expected to go on for the rest of the Boys unfortunately this was brought to halt by the terrorist attacks on the United States in September 11th, 2001. Bixler (2005) says, “about 100 of the 3,800 Boys were still waiting to be interviewed after 9/11” (p.133). The resettlement of the refugee ‘South Sudanese Lost Boys’ started with arrival of small groups arriving in 2000. The resettlement criterion was based on their ages, unaccompanied by their parents or families. The International Rescue Committee (IRC) through their director in (2014), stated that since most of the arriving Lost Boys were deemed to be over 18 and considered young adults, they did not qualify for foster care, "We placed the older boys together in apartments to try to maintain the kind of support network that they developed throughout their difficult journey and while living in the Kakuma camps in Kenya” (Merrill, 2014). Most of these Boys, however, didn’t know their birth dates and were randomly assigned an age (minors or legal adults) by the U.S. government/UN. This was meant to facilitate their resettlement process (Messina & Messina, 2007 ¶. 2). When physically examined in the refugee camps, the Boys who did not know their ages were given January 1st as their birth date. The intent was to make them eligible to receive U.S. government benefits for unaccompanied minors (Barry, 2000). As stated above, the resettlement of the refugee Lost Boys was done in two categories (minors vs legal adults) based on their assigned ages. The first group consisted of those who were 18 years or younger, resettled as minors. They were placed in foster families who assisted them with going to school and enculturation. The second group consisted of those who were 18 years and older, considered young (legal) adults. They were placed in apartments and were supposed to get jobs to start paying their bills. This group was not given a chance to immediately to go school after resettlement (Author, 2011).

The Resettlement Process

The process of being selected and accepted to resettle in the United States was long and not easy for the Sudanese Lost Boys. It needed courage, patience, and resilience. After all they had been in more serious situations in Africa for a long time.

The first phase of the process of resettlement of these Boys in the U.S involved going through background checks. This was to uncover those who had involved themselves in criminal activities and in child soldiering. The Lost Boys had also to undergo medical checkups to ascertain if they had contracted diseases, especially communicable ones.

The second phase was after their resettlement process started after they were resettled in the U. S. Initially those who were selected were resettled on refugee status. Most of them thought that their status would allow and enable them to go to school in the United States after resettlement. What they were not made aware of in coming from refugee camps in Africa is that the U.S immigration policies allowed immigrants into the country on different immigration visa status and that their visa status was refugees. Refugee status could not make it possible for those who were resettled as legal adults to immediately go to school. According to the U.S. immigration policy on refugees, refugees who are resettled in the U.S (legal adults) are supposed to get jobs with six months of their resettlement. That should be their immediate priority and not going to school.

Consequences of Arbitrary Assigned Age Resettlement

The demographic age resettlement arrangements immediately raised unforeseen challenges. Minors were placed with foster families where they received social and educational support. Those resettled as legal adults had to secure employment immediately to fend for themselves. They were provided with apartments rent-free for three months but had to start paying rent thereafter. Once they began working, they were also expected to repay certain medical expenses and the purchase price of airplane tickets that allowed them to leave Africa. Some Boys found it necessary to work two or three jobs, in order to raise enough money to pay their bills and remit some to support their families and friends back in Africa (Citation, 2011. P.116). They also learned that acquisition of English language skills was primary to secure even a manual job in the U.S., not to mention lack of previous work experience as most hadn’t worked in Africa (Citation, 2011).

Their Expectations after Resettlement

Finding a safe sanctuary/an education, and a job was uttermost to every participant in this study (Citation, 2011). Muhindi and Nyakato’s (2002) research also found the expectations the Boys was to find a safe environment in the United States in which they could move freely, express themselves without fear, and realize their dreams of education and professional careers. They also hoped to get well-paying jobs which would enable them to build their socio-economic upward mobility. Indeed, once resettled, the US government and Red Cross planned to give the Boys an education while allowing them to heal from extremely severe trauma (Bixler, 2005).

Secondary Migration

According to Dustmann (1999), immigrants are very rational when it comes to choosing their place of residence in a new country. They became aware of favorable and unfavorable conditions in their new environment. Therefore, immigrants/refugees who thought they might be resettled in unfavorable environment which might not have many social opportunities relocate to places where they would maximize their window of opportunities. Immigrants and refugees tend to relocate to areas where their own ethnic communities reside and, in this way, they share both economic and social assets. It is very common for immigrants to relocate to other states and cities in search of better work, cheaper housing, safer neighborhoods, or to be closer to friends or family (Office of Multicultural Affairs, 2012). According to Gak (2006), President of the Brothers’ Organization for Relief, most of the Lost Boys who lived in Kansas City relocated from other states and cities in the U.S. The U.S federal government allows refugees once legally admitted and resettled to relocate to states and cities they deem to be conducive for their stay, like any other legal resident (Lutheran Social Services New Americans, 2012). Unfortunately, emigration can result in high concentration of an ethnic population in one area. Critics see this as a rejection of assimilation of immigrant groups into the host society. This can result in those immigrants not becoming proficient in English language, consumption patterns, attitudes, customs, and family values (Dustmann, 1999).

From Table 1 above, it is clear that the Lost Boys were not resettled in Kansas City area in 2000 directly. Maybe because of political reasons as Janzen, El-Hasan, Lohrentz and Hartnett (2006) assert, Kansas had been demographically viewed as white, mainstream Americana by the media for a long time. Indeed, Barnett reported that the then Kansas senator Sam Brownback had opposed the resettlement of Somali Bantu refugees from Africa citing their huge populations and cultural differences” (Barnett, 2003, Resettlement Raises Concerns, ¶1). Brownback later gave in part because states have no say or control over refugee resettlement programs (Refugee Protection Act of 2001). Since then, he has been a key supporter of resettlement programs of Kansas refugees and even met Lost Boys personally. Indeed, as Berger (2004) said, Peter Nyarol Dut, one of the Lost Boys, left Houston, Texas for Kansas because he was frustrated with trying to make ends meet financially and trying to get to school. More so he felt discriminated against. He found it difficult to adjust to the urban environment in Houston. Dut thought the only reason he came to the United States was to go to school. His cousin in Olathe told him that Olathe East High School had accepted some Sudanese refugees and that he stood a chance of being accepted. That being the case, Dut made the decision to relocate to Olathe, Kansas. An article by Nancy Beardsley of Voice of America asserted that new waves of immigrants were transforming Kansas City and Missouri, including African Americans moving from the southern states to the north (Beardsley, 2005). Many immigrants are attracted to opportunities afforded them in Kansa as confirmed by one Ethiopian immigrant Daniel Fikru. Fikru

“Kansas City is not a crowded place. There's a lot of opportunity. Housing, education is affordable,” (Beardsley, 2005, ¶ 6)

Many immigrants are attracted to both social and economic opportunities availed to them in Kansas that are not easily available in other states. Today Kansas can be said to be a major destination for African immigrants.

U.S Naturalization Policies

Naturalization is the process by which an individual acquires citizenship of a country other than the individual's country of origin. In most cases, countries require that a person applying for naturalization reside in the new country for a minimum period. In the United States, this is termed a probationary period during which authorities evaluate that individual's behavior and obedience to U. S. laws. The Fourteenth Amendment of the United States Constitution provides the legal framework for individuals of foreign countries to be naturalized in the United States. In 1945, President Harry Truman signed a statement that allowed displaced people and refugees to be given priority over other immigrants (Woolley and Peters, 1999). From that time, several acts have been passed by congress which stipulates refugee policies. The Refugee Act of 1980 allowed refugees to be accepted into the United States on humanitarian grounds for unlimited stay so long as the countries of origin were still in conflict or having problems. The act also removed the cap that allowed only refugees from Europe (anti-communist) to allow refugees from the rest of the world especially from Africa (Newland, 1995).

Refugees accepted into the United States can change their status to permanent residents after physically staying in the U. S for one year. This is done by individual application to change status through the United States citizenship and immigration services (Congressional Report, June 1997). Permanent residents can stay in the United States for an unlimited period and after five years; permanent residents can further change their status to become fully naturalized citizens. There are rights and responsibilities that go with a foreign individual (s) becoming naturalized. The rights include, voting in federal elections, serving in a jury, bringing family members to the United States for family reunion, obtaining citizenship for children born abroad, traveling with a U.S passport, running for a federal office and becoming eligible for federal grants. The Lost Boys who become U.S. citizens had to learn responsibilities of citizenship. This included; support and to defense of the constitution, serve the country when required, participate in the democratic process, respect and obey federal, state, and local laws, respect the rights, beliefs, and opinions of others, and participate in your local community (U.S. Department of Homeland Security, 2009). For the Lost Boys becoming an American (naturalization) was important because this was a way of being accepted and integrating into mainstream American society. It also provided them with the ability to access important privileges accorded to American citizens. Those who have become U.S citizens could travel freely in and out of the United States; they could also get student loans, among other privileges.

The Role of the Church in Naturalization Process

The Immigration and Nationality Act (INA): ACT 412 stipulates, “In the case of a refugee child who is unaccompanied by a parent or other close adult relative (as defined by the Director), the services described in subparagraph (A) may be furnished until the month after the child attains eighteen years of age (or such higher age as the State's child welfare services plan under part B of title IV of the Social Security Act prescribes for the availability of such services to any other child in that State)” (B)(i). This policy is also adopted by resettlement agencies more especially religious institutions. According to Lutheran Social services (2012), refugees often receive services for up to five years from the date of arrival from resettlement agencies (immigration services), if they are in need. Services include information, referrals, case management, and employment. These services are more readily available to those who are considered to be unaccompanied minors (18 years and less). Also provided by this services are; foster care family licensing for those families that hosted refugee minors, placement, case management, independent living services, ongoing services to adulthood and a nominal fee starting from thirty days to five years and more (Affidavit of Relationship and Refugee Interest forms for qualified family members) (Lutheran Social Services New Americans, 2012).

The church has played a key role in shaping the experiences of the Lost Boys in Kansas through their assistance and provision of social structure and the opportunity for immersion in an English-speaking environment. Churches have been the primary channel for refugees resettled in the U.S with assistance from government and non-governmental agencies. The church has offered naturalization information and assisted in the process by paying for the application process which is very costly. The participants in this study who live in the greater Kansas City area consider becoming American citizens (naturalization) to be very important since it means being accepted and assimilated into mainstream American society. It also provides them among other things, the means to access important privileges accorded to American students (i.e. acquiring student loans, among other privileges) which other countries do not offer or provide. Getting jobs more easily and travelling out and in the U.S without many problems (Citation, 2011). The following section will briefly explicate refugee and naturalization policies of other countries where some Lost Boys were resettled.

As stipulated in the U.S fourteenth amendment of the U.S Constitution, foreign individuals can be naturalized. Among those who are eligible for naturalization under the U.S. constitution are a special group of immigrants commonly known as refugees. The definition of a refugee is defined in the Refugee Act of 1980. Title IV, Chap. 2 of the Immigration and Nationality Act (INA) INA Act of June 27, 1952 contains the provisions of the Refugee Act that defines a refugee as, “a person who is outside his or her country and is unable or unwilling to return because of persecution or a well-founded fear of persecution on account of race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group, or political opinion (ORR, August 2012). Other individuals and groups that qualify for benefits and services under this Act include asylees (individuals who enter the U.S. without refugee status but are later determined to meet the definition of refugee), and victims of a severe form of trafficking (Halpern, 2008). Under special circumstances, a refugee may be a person who is within his or her country and who is facing persecution or has a well-founded fear of persecution on account of race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group, or political opinion. Not included in this category of who a refugee is, is any person who participated in the persecution of another person” (INA 101(a)(42),1952). Most humanitarian agencies use the above definition to identify refugees, though Article 1A, paragraph 2, of the 1951 of the Geneva Convention relating to status of refugees adds, “Stateless persons may also be refugees in this sense, where country of origin (citizenship) is understood as “country of former habitual residence.” Those who possess more than one nationality will only be considered as refugees within the Convention if such other nationality or nationalities are ineffective (that is, do not provide protection)” (UNHCR, 1979). Since this study is based on refugees in the United States, this study will use the term “refugees” to refer to all such individuals and groups that qualify under the ORR guidelines.

Immigrant refugees have also the privilege to access social welfare in the United States unlike other immigrants. Heins (1993) contends that there is a clear distinction between a refugee and an immigrant as the former can adjust status to an immigrant but the later cant (depending on the status of the immigrant. Refugees are also provided for a pathway to naturalization unlike other categories of immigrants. According to (Woolley and Peters 1999), in 1945, President Harry Truman signed a bill that gave displaced people and refugees priority to become U.S naturalized citizens over other immigrants. Since then, several immigration acts have been passed by congress which stipulates refugee policies. Amongst these acts is the Refugee Act of 1980 that allowed refugees to be accepted into the United States on humanitarian grounds for unlimited stay so long as those countries of origin were still in conflict on violence. This means refugees are given legal immigration status. The 1980 Refugee Act also did away with the traditional acceptance for refugees only from Europe (anti-communist individuals and countries) to allow refugees from the rest of the world especially from Africa (Newland, 1995). This act has a clause that allowed refugees that were accepted into the United States to change their status to permanent residents after physically staying in the United States for a period of one year. The process involves individual application to change status by the individual (refugee) through the United States citizenship and immigration services (Congressional Report, June 1997). After change of status from refugee to permanent resident, permanent residents are allowed to stay in the United States for an unlimited period of time. However, after five years; permanent residents can proceed to change their status to become fully naturalized U.S. citizens (Congressional Report, June 1997).

Classical Assimilation Theory

Early Immigrants

Classical assimilation theory, a 1920s paradigm with origins in the Chicago School, has been used by researchers to define integration or incorporation of immigrants in the United States for a long time. This theory presupposes that since the U.S has a diverse culture, then it can better be understood as a “melting pot”, where immigrants and majority groups follow a “straight- line” interaction and over time both groups become more familiar in terms of norms, values, behavior and characteristics. In other words, immigrants who have spent more time in the host country will show greater similarities as those of the host society than those newly arrived (Brown and Bean, 2006).

Newly arrived refugees begin their resettlement process by adapting to the new cultural environment, the new people, and more so new language (Keel & Drew, 2004). Adaptation refers to changes that take place in the new environment and can vary from individual to individual in the length it will take for one individual to adapt from another (Berry, 1997).

Following adaptation is a period of acculturation of an immigrant. Berry (2001) explains the process involves two or more groups with effect on both groups, though the non-dominant group is affected most by the dominant group (P. 616). These effects include; economic, technical, social, cultural, and political factors (Berry, 2001). Birman (1994), Williams and Berry (1991, in keel and Drew, 2004) added the psychological aspects in which they said, behavior of an individual, values, attitudes, and identity within a group would differ from that of another individual within the same group. Giving reference to the Lost Boys, adaptation of these Boys occurred as a set of factors or structures that existed in the host society like refugee programs (resettlement based on assigned age) enhanced or diminished their adaptation. This depended on individual refugee experience that the Boys’ came with or social capital (Haines, 1985).

In sociological literature of immigrants, assimilation perspective of immigrants/refugees has been most popularized by Min Zhou. Zhou (1997a) a proponent of classical assimilation perspective, stated that there is a natural process by which the non-dominant group come to share aspects of common dominant cultural traits and eventually acquire a common culture, and access to opportunities of social structure of a given society. Classical assimilation theory emphasizes the shedding of some cultural traits such as language, ethnic identification, beliefs and traditions (loss of social capital) by an immigrant in the process of assimilation (Gordon, 1964). Gordon further explains with time, the original culture of the immigrants disappears as the new generation assimilates and becomes ‘Americanized’ (found social capital). Zhou (1997a) contends that once this process starts, it is inevitable and irreversible process of assimilation of the immigrant. He goes on to argue that with time, the immigrant is able to adopt and look like other Americans, and be assimilated into the American middle class through intermarriages, residential integration, and occupational mobility if not the immigrant sinks into the lower class. He, however, cautions that the process is a painful one and not easy (Zhou, 1997b). Park (1928), another proponent of classical assimilation of immigrants adds that the process involves, race relations, competition of resources, and mutual accommodation side by side of each involved group. This is assumed to lead to immigrant abandoning his/her old cultural traits as the individual adapts to new found ones as that individual blends into the new cultural environment. This type of assimilation is referred to as ‘melting’ into the mainstream culture through both residential integration and occupational achievement in classical perspective (Park, 1928).

Critics of Classical Assimilation Theory

New Immigrants

Critics of classical assimilation theory amongst them Gans (1992) have argued that immigrants cannot follow a straight-line assimilation because each immigrant possesses different social capital, thus making the assimilation of immigrants to follow different trajectories which can be upward or downward. Warner and Land (1945) contend other factors like institutional assimilation such as social class, ranking, and race also determine how an individual will assimilate. Zhou (1997b) pointed out that assimilation of minorities (ethnic) was not smooth due to subordination or discrimination that is associated with ascribed status such as race. He and other classical assimilation theorists argue that though original culture and language of the immigrant would disappear with time, ascribed characteristics such as skin color, language of the immigrant and religion are key in the assimilation process into the mainstream culture. These are also accompanied by socio-economic status of the immigrant (Zhou, 1997a).

Classical Assimilation Theory not Applicable to Study of New Immigrants

Gordon (1964) did a synthesis of classical assimilation theory whose outcome stated that the theory had four problems in the first place. First was full incorporation of immigrants, second was ethnocentrism, third was inevitability and forth was one sidedness without clear positive contribution of ethnic cultures. His conclusion was classical assimilation perspective could not be applied to new migration process but fitted only early European immigrants to the U. S. Gordon therefore proposed an alternative assimilation perspective of understanding immigrant assimilation process. He said the structural assimilation perspective would be a better way of understanding new immigrant assimilation process. Gordon argued that structural assimilation was the cornerstone of all other stages of assimilation. Structural assimilation according to him, involved the immigrant accessing and being accepted to join social cliques, clubs, and other societal major institutions such as schools.

From Gordon (1964) arguments that classical assimilation theory cannot be applied to new immigrants, classical assimilation theory cannot then best describe the assimilation processes and experience of the Lost Boys as new immigrants in the United States. Though it is important to note that classical assimilation theory can help entangle some of the trajectories that the Lost Boys underwent and cannot be totally thrown away. For instance, the classic assimilation perspective states that some of the cultural traits that have to be done away with when an immigrant adapts may include the immigrant’s own language, ethnic identification, beliefs and traditions (lost social capital) which can be true with some immigrants. Gordon (1964) concurs with the above that immigrants must do away with their original culture in order to assimilate. Over time, the original immigrant culture disappears as the new generation assimilates and becomes ‘Americanized’ (found social capital).

Emerging Contemporary Theories and the Lost Boys

This study stresses the importance of hearing from the Lost Boys themselves regarding their individual assimilation processes. There are three assimilation theories best suited to explore Lost Boys assimilation experiences. These contemporary theories include; Immigration Optimism Hypothesis, Spatial-Assimilation Hypothesis and segmented assimilation Hypothesis as stipulated by Hirschman (2001), and Massey (1986).

According to Hirschman (2001), “the immigrant optimism hypothesis predicts that the second generation (and immigrants who came as small children) will have the best of both worlds because they have the mastery of English language and growing up in American institutions. This assertion best describes Lost Boys who were resettled as minors.

Spatial assimilation as articulated by Massey (1986) presupposes that cultural adaptation and socio-economic development by immigrants would enhance their relocation from highly concentrated city center enclaves to less ethnically scattered city suburbs. With their relocation to city suburbs, immigrants would acculturate more by integrating with American residents within the suburbs and even being beneficiaries of structural opportunities such as employment. Those Lost Boys that relocated because of job related factors become assimilated according to the type of human capital they had acquired. In this case spatial assimilation hypothesis best describes the assimilation process for those who relocated to the greater Kansas City area.

The segmented-assimilation hypothesis provides a lens for understanding the discrepancy assimilation or incorporation of immigrants into their new environment. This theory is most suited in explaining the assimilation patterns of the Lost Boys. For the Lost Boys age was a very important factor in their resettlement and thus their assimilation processes (minor’s verses legal adults). As Hirschman (2001) asserts “rather than expecting a uniform process of successful adaptation with greater exposure to (longer residence) American society, the segmented-assimilation hypothesis predicts that adaptation is contingent on geographical location, social class of the family of origin, “race”, and place of birth.” Further, “the segmented-assimilation interpretation is supported by case studies of particular immigrant/ethnic populations that have been able to utilize community resources to pursue a strategy of encouraging their children’s socio-economic upward mobility while also supporting only selective acculturation to American society” retaining some parts of original cultures like names and language (Hirschman, 2001).

Ethnography

It is important to give this study an ethnographic approach given cultural elements (language, beliefs, values, and practices) of the Lost Boys are included in this study to enhance understanding of the processes of integration, assimilation, and/or marginalization of these Boys. Harris and Johnson (2000) define ethnography as "a descriptive account of social life and culture in a particular social system based on detailed observations of what people actually do." Hammersley and Atkinson (1995) go a step further to say ethnography refers primarily to a specific method or set of methods used in research or study.

The Study Location and Data Collection Agenda

The study applied a multiple case study model, which provided the methodology for collection of data from identified participants (Yin, 1994). To guarantee reaching out to a larger number of participants, the study employed an information-oriented sampling technique (snowball) in which the participants could refer to other individuals in the population as potential interviewees (Patton, 1990). This technique enabled me to interview 40 participants. Data in this study was collected starting July 29, 2009 and took three weeks to complete from the participating South Sudanese Lost Boys in the greater Kansas City area. This was in accordance with approval guidelines outlined by the Institutional Review Board (IRB) of Kansas State University (June 25, 2009). Primary investigation with the Lost Boys participating in the study indicated that there were about 100 Lost Boys living in the greater Kansas City area (this number was not verified because official data were not available). All participants signed a consent form (Citation) and appropriate screening was conducted to ensure they were genuine Lost Boys and were adults (18 years and above). The interviews were arranged and conducted at the residence of one participant who was attending Johnson County Community College and who also acted as the liaison for the study, coordinating interviews held in his home. Data collection protocol for this study included in-depth and standard unstructured interviews, life stories, informal conversation, and spending time with the “Lost Boys.” The interviews were conducted face-to-face in English, while being recorded (later transcribed and analyzed). Each interview ranged from half an hour to over two hours, with the majority being around an hour and a half. Although using an interview schedule, this study was flexible enough to allow the participants’ time to reflect and then answer (not rushing their responses). Though some participants did not respond to all questions posited, it was important to make sure that further information was harnessed by making follow ups at the end of the interview. The same questions were asked repeatedly to each participant and a saturation (reliability) point was reached at 40 face-to-face interviews, thus prompting an end of the interview process. Though the interview process applied Ager and Strang’s (2004) designed a questionnaire consisting of eleven ethnographic and/or demographic and cultural categories: education, employment, housing, religion, culture, social networks, friends, family, place, citizenship and safety (see Ager & Strang, 2004: 3). I discuss culture in the following section as it is the focus of this study.

Data Analysis

After conducting interviews with the Lost Boys, I transcribed the digitally-recorded interviews and used the data as the primary research source. I assigned the responses in a coded form, where respondents were just called participants instead of using their real names. I employed a thematic system using Ager and Strang’s (2004) demographic and cultural/ethnographic criteria for my data analysis and identified common themes. A thematic system protects the confidentiality of individual participants instead of presenting individual cases. (Confidentiality of the participants in this research was of great importance, as they demanded this type of protection.). Three major themes emerged during this study and recurred among nearly all participants from the above eleven categories mentioned earlier. Education (cultural capital), Employment (economic empowerment), and, Citizenship (naturalization). Participants are then categorized into three themes depending on the social capital they possessed at the time of the interviews (see tables 2-4).

Citizenship (Naturalization)

Grouping the Participations into Similar Immigration Statuses

In this section I categorized the participants into three groups. The first group was composed of the Lost Boys who had not changed their status from refugees. The second group was composed of those who had changed their status to U.S. permanent residents, and the third group was composed of those who had become U.S naturalized citizens.

The first group: Fifteen participants had not changed their status from being refugees since their resettlement in 2000 (see table 4). They gave different reasons why they had not become permanent residents or U.S citizens. Amongst these reasons were high costs of processing application to change status. Some said change of status was not their first priority since no one forced them to leave, while others said they had not met the mandatory required stay period in U.S. for them to change status. However, everyone in this group indicated that they were looking forward to changing status when time came (Citation, 2011). This participant said:

I would have been long time ago, but I was not able because I had a lot of financial problems. However I would like to become a citizen so that I can be able to fly to Africa and other places in the world. I don’t want to go to Africa and then get stuck over there. I don’t want to struggle coming back. I need to get my citizenship so that I can be a free man and bring my family to the U.S.

These group of Boys said they had not gone back to Africa because they were afraid of being barred re-entry to the United States when they were ready to come back. They had heard of some people who had been barred from re-entering the U.S. after they went to Africa to visit families (they were denied re-entry visas). So citizenship could be a secure way to travel freely to and from Africa. They could also other benefits that were accorded American citizens. Citizenship would also enable them to bring their families to the United States under the family reunion act of 1965. This participant confirmed:

This will help me in two ways. It will allow me to bring my family. It will allow me to travel to and from Africa easily. I intend to stay in the US for a long time.

The following participant an account of what he thought American citizenship would offer him:

Freedom. You gonna be treated like other Americans. There will be no difference. You will be treated for what you do and not where you are from. Like now I can’t be treated like a regular American citizen. If I commit a crime I can get deported. Citizenship is one of my most important goals.

The second group: This is a group of fifteen participants who had already successfully applied to become U.S. permanent residents. They said life for them in the U.S had become easier since changing their status than when they were just refugees. This was because they could get student loans, travel in and out of the United States, although they could not participate in voting (both state and federal).

I am not yet a U.S citizen. I am a permanent resident. I have four months to be a full citizen. This might enable me to bring my family. I am planning next month to fill in a form for citizenship but that will cost 600 to 700 dollars. I don’t have money but I need to do that.

The third group: This group was comprised ten participants who had already been naturalized (U.S. citizens). They looked more relaxed (composed) and talked more freely (with confidence) than those who had not changed their status from refugees. They considered themselves Americans like locally born American (Citation, 2011). They cited voting in federal elections among other privileges. This participant said:

When I was living in Kakuma, there are those Americans who were working in the refugee camps. They were so proud of themselves. They put on everything American. I just felt like a very low class person as compared to them. Now that I am an American, when I traveled to Africa, my friends in the refugee camps were jealous of me. I told them I am an American and I showed them an American passport (smile).

Most of the participants indicated they intended to stay in the United States for unknown period after being naturalized as American citizens. Though some said they would be flying to Africa to visit family and friends. Some were uneasy with this question, and gave responses like this one:

That is the same question senator Sam Brownback asked me when I met him 2007. I don’t know how long I will stay here but at some time in my life I will go back to Sudan. For now I am here to stay.

An interesting finding in this study was the responsibility that went with immigrants being naturalized. Most participants did not care much about the responsibilities that accompanied naturalization. Most participants said they did not want to be called to serve on jury, serve in the military, (though some did) or even to vote (Citation, 2011). This participant summarized as;

I did not become an American citizen by coming here to charge Americans. Americans gave me a chance to come over and live with them. That is why they gave me citizenship. I am proud of that. I am not going to send Americans to jail. That is the work of Americans who were born here. I don’t even understand some of the American crimes. I also won’t want to serve in the military. I run from war and I did not come here to go to war nor do I want to vote. I don’t like politics at all. I just want a quiet life. Build myself and my family.

Analysis: Importance of Naturalization

Acquiring citizenship is the climax of immigrant assimilation, as this legitimizes acceptance into the host society by the American government and society at large. Salins (1997) argues that American political structure and policies grant immigrants and refugees civil legitimacy through citizenship. This not only means acceptance into the host society but it is a process of incorporation of immigrants. From this study, most of the Lost Boys that participated in this research had acquired either permanent residency or U.S. citizenship by naturalization. Citizenship acquisition was also advantageous to the Lost Boys in that it granted equal access to federal assistance that helps them pay for college like American citizens (Citation, 2011). It also allowed them to bring their families to the U.S. under the family reunion act of 1965 (chain migration!). Salins (1997) contends that the American political structure enhances assimilation by preventing acts of discrimination against immigrants and ethnic minorities. This is done by granting civil legitimacy to immigrants formally accepting immigrants to be part of the American society by granting them citizenship after a brief stay in the United States. Therefore, naturalization and citizenship form one of the most significant indicators of assimilation in the United States.

The U.S refugee act of 1980 allows refugees to change their status from refugees to permanent residents after a period of residency in the U.S for one year. However, this involves money. Though many qualified to apply for change of status, they could not afford the fee that was required for the change of status. Most Lost Boys decided to postpone change of status from refugee status to permanent residents to address most immediate pressing needs. The pressing needs included among others, paying bills, saving money for tuition, and remitting some back home to help those who were left behind in Sudan and Kenyan refugee camps (families and friends). One privilege legal adults had, was being on refugee status allowed them to stay and work in the United States for unlimited period. Interestingly, what emerged from this study is that those Boys that were resettled as minors in foster families and were not allowed to work because of their age (U.S employment policy allows individuals to work after they are 18 years and above) started off without economic empowerment but had the privilege of attending school, interacting with members of the foster families. This presented a significant advantage for them since it improved their English proficiency. They were placed in school by those foster families and after graduation from colleges they got good well-paying jobs. In this was they could easily afford to pay for the process to change their status from refugees to permanent residents. On the other hand there was a reverse trend for those who were resettled as legal adults. Though they started off after resettlement by working, after ten years they are still struggling. They did not have the privilege of going to school because they were placed in apartments and were meant to pay rent and other domestic bills. This was consequential in that they couldn’t make enough from the manual temporary jobs they were given to save some cash for processing their citizenship which is very expensive.

The authors declared that they have no conflict of interest

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Table 1 is available in the Supplementary Files section.

Table_2

Education and English Language
	Group 1	Group 2	Group 3
Number	8	8	24
Adult/Minor	Minor	Adult	Adult
Able to communicate with other African American Immigrants	Yes, in English	No, common language with other groups	Could communicate in English and Swahili common to most Africans
Education in Africa	5	0	Yes
Continuing English Language Proficiency	Immersed in American Families	Enrolled in ESL Difficult to learn English-Lack of immersion & interaction
Schooling in U.S.	Yes-After foster families assisted with tuition	Enrolled in English as a Second Language (ESL)	Yes
Financial Assistance/Income	FF Paid Tuition FF provided housing & helped with daily living	Difficult to find a job	Due to schooling, many were unable to find a job.

Table_3

Economic Empowerment
	Group 1	Group 2	Group 3	Group 4
Number	8	8	10	14
Adult/Minor	Minor	Adult	Adult	Adult
School/English in Africa	5	No	Some	Some
Work in Africa	No	No	Some	No
Financial Assistance	Supported by foster families who received financial assistance	Yes	Yes	Yes
Education in U.S.	Yes	No	Yes	No
Work in U.S.	No-Not allowed due to being a minor	Required to work-difficult to find employment-no work skills-little English-temp manual labor jobs	Yes	Yes

Table_4

Naturalization
	Group 1	Group 2	Group 3
Number	15	15	10
Adult/Minor	Adults	3 Minors 12 Adults	5 Minors 5 Adults
U.S. Permanent Resident	No	Yes	Yes
U.S. Citizen	No	No	Yes
Visit Africa	No	Yes	Yes
Bring Families to U.S.	No	No	Yes
Financial Assistance	No	Able to get student loans and unemployment benefits	Minors-Yes Adults-No

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Naturalization of the Refugee South Sudanese Lost Boys in the Greater Kansas City Area.

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Abstract

Introduction

Brief History of the Sudan

The Study

Literature Review: The U.s. Naturalization Policy For Refugees

Early Immigrants

New Immigrants

Methodology: Instruments And Procedure

Ethnography

Presenting The Findings

Conclusion

Declarations

References

Table 1

Tables 2-4

Supplementary Files

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