Methodology for integrating SuDS in urban planning; the case of Spain

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Methodology for integrating SuDS in urban planning; the case of Spain

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Climate change is possibly the biggest challenge facing cities today. The consequences of this phenomenon have led to the need to rethink urban models, so that the presence of water and green spaces can serve as a tool to make cities more resilient. In recent years, SuDS have been implemented to alleviate environmental problems caused by soil sealing and the effects of climate change. Their effectiveness has been demonstrated in cities around the world, however, the level of implementation is in most cases limited to mitigating the effects caused by inadequate urban planning. Some countries are going a step further by proposing actions to integrate the SuDS into different urban plans with the so-called ‘Water Sensitive Urban Design’. In Mediterranean countries it is even more necessary to advance in this direction, as both the topographical characteristics of the cities and the intense rainfall are generating serious environmental problems. In the case of Spain, there are hardly any proposals related to the integration of SuDS in planning. This paper proposes a methodology for this in the different urban plans existing in this country, which can be extrapolated to other Mediterranean countries such as France and Italy. This methodology will help to enhance the use of SuDS in cities and will generate considerable progress in sustainable planning.

Sustainable Drainage Systems

SuDS

WSUD

Climate change

Urban planning

Spain

The consequences of climate change call for new models of urban planning.
SuDS need to be integrated into urban planning to make cities more resilient.
Planning methodologies that enhance the integration of SuDS into cities should be developed.

Climate change is the greatest environmental challenge facing us today, due to its global dimension and its profound social and economic implications (Ghodsi et al. 2020; Roseboro et al. 2021). Knowledge of its risks and impacts, together with monitoring and adaptation measures to address the problem, provide the basis for guiding action to reduce vulnerability and increase resilience to climate change (Semadeni-Davies et al. 2008). Cities face significant impacts in relation to the intensification of weather events, which are exacerbated by the continuous process of weatherproofing that cities have undergone throughout the 20th century (Zhou et al. 2014). This phenomenon, known as 'soil sealing' (Pistocchi et al. 2015), has generated numerous environmental impacts (Navarro-Leblond et al. 2021), in many cases irreversible, such as soil degradation, reduced biodiversity, increased temperature in the city - the 'heat island' effect - and increased runoff, which has led to serious problems of flooding, contaminated water spills and collapsed sewage networks (Fini et al. 2017). This continuous process of expansion and waterproofing of the built-up area has meant that 67% of the 1000 km² of land that is urbanized each year in Europe is impermeable (European Commission 2012).

In this sense, the so-called 'SuDS' (Sustainable Drainage Systems) have been used since the 1990s as a measure to mitigate the effects of soil sealing in urban areas. These systems are known with different terms (Rodríguez-Rojas and Grindlay 2022); SuDS, LIDs (Low Impact Developments), BMPs (Best Management Practices), WSUD (Water Sensitive Urban Design), GI (Green Infrastructures), or NbS (Nature-based Solutions) among others. Each of these systems has their own particularities but all of them have many common aspects. They are mainly designed to restore, as far as possible, the natural hydrological water cycle altered by soil sealing, infiltrating, retaining and reusing rainwater in the city (Woods Ballard et al. 2015). Their environmental benefits are very important in today's climate change context, contributing to the reduction of flooding and water pollution (Burns et al. 2012), increasing water resources (Charlesworth et al. 2013), generating a pleasant environment, facilitating carbon sequestration, lowering temperatures in urban areas, and improving human health and well-being (Norton et al. 2015). All of them constitute a more sustainable approach to runoff management, going beyond the traditional approach that seeks to collect and convey stormwater to sewer networks as quickly as possible, removing it completely from the street surface (Rodriguez-Rojas et al. 2018). Countries such as the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada, France and Australia among others, have long used these systems with very positive results in improving urban resilience to climate change (Jones and Somper, 2014).

Comprehensive action to combat the effects of soil sealing and climate change requires a shift in the urban design paradigm. The city-making process offers a valuable opportunity to restore environmental quality and reduce the effects of climate change and soil sealing (Ghodsi et al. 2020). This approach to planning that integrates runoff has been defined as 'Water Sensitive Urban Design' (COAG 2004) and is described as the integration of urban planning in the management, protection and conservation of the urban water cycle, so as to ensure water management that is sensitive to hydrological and ecological processes (Radcliffe 2019). Its application in the fight against climate change has become a priority in the last ten years, giving rise to a new trend called 'Water Sensitive Cities' (Wong et al. 2013), whose main objective is to make our cities more pleasant places to live in, resilient, sustainable, recovering a more natural relationship between water and the city (BMT, 2011). The importance of this new model of urban planning, which integrates urban drainage as another variable in the planning process, is shown by the manuals that have appeared in recent years and that have become a reference in the field; Planning for SuDS (Dickie et al 2010), Creating water sensitive places (Abbott et al. 2013), Determine the microclimate influence of harvesting solutions, Water Sensitive Urban Design at the micro-scale (Coutts et al. 2013), Blue-green infrastructure - perspectives on planning (Kriptsov et al. 2019)… These publications show general recommendations for integrating SuDS into urban planning, opening their implementation according to the urban legislation. So, each country is developing its own recommendations or regulations to encourage the implementation of SuDS in the planning phases of cities, for example, ‘Water Sensitive Urban Design in the UK’ (Abbott et al. 2013), ‘Evaluating Options for Water Sensitive Urban Design – A National Guide’ in Australia (BMT 2011), ‘The Social Indicator Planning and Evaluation System (SIPES) for Nonpoint Source Management’ in USA (Ken and Prokopy 2011), ‘Gestion durable des eaux pluviales : le plan d’action’ in France (Ministère de la transition Écologique 2021)…

In Spain, some guides have been published with recommendations for the design of SuDS and their implementation: ‘Guía para la integración de los Sistemas Urbanos de Drenaje Sostenible en el proyecto urbano’ (Rodríguez-Rojas et al. 2017), ‘Gestión sostenible de aguas pluviales en zonas verdes y otros’ (Checa Sánchez and de Pazos Lia 2018), and ‘Guía básica para el diseño de Sistemas Urbanos de Drenaje Sostenible en la ciudad de València’ (De la Fuente García et al. 2021). However, there is still no publication that establishes specific recommendations for the integration of SuDS in urban planning taking into account Spanish regulations. The fact that each region has its own planning regulations makes this more difficult. Recommendations for the planning of specific ‘Water Sensitive Cities’ are very necessary as Spain is a country where the consequences of climate change are even more severe, due to the existing climate with large variations in temperature and precipitation.

This publication presents a methodology for the implementation of SuDS in urban planning, as a starting point for the elaboration of an urban regulation to be implemented at the different scales of planning.

Since the 1990s, many SuDS projects have been developed in Spain, as a tool to minimize the effects of ‘soil sealing’ in cities such as Barcelona, Valencia, Santander, Oviedo, Madrid, Granada... (Red SuDS 2019). In the last national meeting on SuDS held in 2021 in Valencia (Red SuDS 2021) the consolidation of SuDS projects in Spain and the good results obtained under different weather conditions were shown. Thus, it is necessary to take a step towards ‘Water Sensitive Urban Design’ by implementing SuDS not as a tool to alleviate the effects of waterproofing, but as a planning tool that avoids the problems at their source, an unsustainable urban planning model. On the other hand, the increasingly frequent and intense rainfall in this country makes it urgent to develop urban planning measures to increase urban resilience to climate change through the design of ‘Water Sensitive Cities’.

There are currently some regulations at national level in Spain that present SuDS as a measure to reduce flooding and discharges from the sewerage network (RD 638/2016 and RD 903/2010) but without specifying how they should be included in land and urban planning regulations. At regional level, there are some attempts to integrate SuDS in regulations such as Asturias and Catalonia, where these systems are invited to be used to reuse rainwater (BOE 22 Agosto 2022; Decret 21/2006), in Galicia where recommendations are included to implement SuDS in new urban areas (Xunta de Galicia 2009) or Valencia where the use of SuDS is proposed in the design of green infrastructure included or associated with land-use plans (Corts Valencianes 2017). At the local level, some cities are developing their own regulations that promote the integration of SuDS in new residential and industrial projects, as is the case in Madrid (Ayuntamiento de Madrid 2006). This variety of isolated cases, lacking a global vision of how to integrate these systems in urban planning regulations, makes it necessary to establish a methodology to serve as a basis for the development of national regulations that promote the implementation of SuDS in Spanish planning documents. This methodology will be exportable to other Mediterranean regions with a similar climate and urban plans (southern France and Italy mainly).

3.1 Principles for Water Sensitive Urban Design

The main objective of Water Sensitive Urban Design is to design urban environments closer to water and nature, where human activities can take place without causing environmental deterioration of the city. To this end, it is necessary to establish basic principles to serve for the definition of a planning methodology.

The basis for the design of Water Sensitive Cities is under constant review, given the recentness of this approach. According to Wong and Brown (2009), these foundations can be summarized as the cities should:

Take advantage of different sources of water supply and at different scales.
Provide ecosystem services.
Promote water-sensitive communities.

On this basis, the following principles are proposed for the application of the Water Sensitive Urban Design principles to urban planning:

Cities must be planned to take advantage of the water resources they generate. The high impermeability of urban environments generates a large amount of water that, instead of being considered a threat, can be seen as a potential and a resource. Thus, rainwater harvesting is the first requirement in Water Sensitive Cities, so that the city must be designed to retain, infiltrate and reuse rainwater.
Cities must provide ecosystem services to the natural environment, so that they contribute to the functions of the hydrological cycle. In this sense, urban morphology can contribute to naturalizing the behavior of water in the city. Street networks can be planned to generate paths that transport surface water to places where it can infiltrate and/or be reused, thus calming the torrential rainfall and considerably reducing the probability of flooding.
Cities must promote the creation of water-sensitive communities. The involvement of the different urban social agents is a necessary condition for Water Sensitive Urban Design to become a reality in our cities. The paradigm shift that Water Sensitive Cities imply in city design requires establishing collaborative strategies with stakeholders so that they are involved in decision-making.

3.2 Scales of planning

Urban plans at these scales in Spain, France and Italy have been analyzed in order to identify the possibility of applying the proposed methodology in these countries. The scales of intervention in urban planning are generally the following:

Municipal, city or metropolitan area. At this scale, the different land uses, large green spaces, infrastructures, facilities... are planned. In Spain, the plan developed at this scale is called 'Plan General de Ordenación Urbana' -P.G.O.U.- or 'Plan de Ordenación de la Aglomeración Urbana' in the case of metropolitan areas -P.O.T.A.U.- (urban agglomeration spatial plans). In France it is called ‘Plan Local d'Urbanisme’ -P.L.U.- or ‘Plan local d'urbanisme intercommunal’ –P.L.U.i. for several urban areas (urban development plans). In Italy they are named ‘Piano Regolatore Generale Comunale –P.R.G.C.- (municipal master plans).
Neighborhood or district. At this scale, residential and commercial areas, streets, squares, parks and public spaces are planned in more detail. In Spain, at this scale the plan is called ‘Plan Parcial' -P.P.- (partial plans), in France ‘Plan Directeur de Quartier’ -P.D.Q.- (neighborhood management plans) and in Italy ‘Piano di quartiere’ o ‘Piano di lottizzazione’ –P.D.Q.- (neighborhood management plans).
Street and plot. At this scale, urban elements are designed in projects with as much detail as possible, defining the slopes of streets, pavements, trees and vegetation, areas around houses... In Spain, the urban project at this scale is called ‘Proyecto de Urbanización' -P.U.- (urban development projects), in France ‘Project d'Aménagement Urbain’ -P.A.U.- (urban project plans) and in Italy ‘Progetto di Disegno Urbano’–P.D.U.- (urban design projects).

Therefore, the integration of the SuDS in urban planning will be proposed at the 3 defined scales; city, neighborhood and street-plot. The proposed methodology can be integrated into the plans of each of the countries mentioned above at the appropriate scales.

3.3 How to integrate SuDS into urban planning

The following table shows the proposed methodology to integrate the SuDS in urban planning; scales, actions and urban plans where they must be implemented. The actions have been divided into 3 phases; the analysis to be carried out, the proposed measures and the possible regulations to be implemented in urban planning. These actions are detailed in the following sections.

Table 1. Methodology for integrating SuDS in urban planning

SCALE	ACTIONS	APPLICATION IN URBAN PLANS
City	ANALYSIS. Realize an urban hydrological study.	Spain: P.G.O.U. France: P.L.U. Italy: P.R.G.C.
	MEASURES. Locate large green areas and multifunctional spaces in water collection and flooding areas.
	REGULATIONS. Establish a minimum ratio of m² of permeable area per m² of new built-up area.
Neighborhood	ANALYSIS. Realize a runoff water study and identify ‘river and lake streets’.	Spain: P.P. France: P.D.Q. Italy: P.P.
	MEASURES. Locate infiltration and retention SuDS respectively. Plan and connect green and blue corridors to convey runoff to infiltration and retention areas. Incorporate stakeholders into the decision-making process.
	REGULATIONS. Establish a minimum percentage of infiltration of urban runoff generated by new built-up areas.
Street-Plot	ANALYSIS. Realize a slopes study.	Spain: P.U. France: P.A.U. Italy: P.D.U.
	MEASURES. Design road and pavement slopes to convey water to infiltration surfaces. Convert building roofs into green roofs.
	REGULATIONS. Establish a reuse a minimum percentage of the collected runoff water.

3.3.1 City planning scale

One of the main problems of Mediterranean cities is that they have a climate with torrential rainfall, where a large volume of water is precipitated in a very short time. This phenomenon is being aggravated in recent years due to the effects of climate change. This is why infiltrating runoff by increasing the permeability of urban spaces should be a main objective in urban planning.

So, at the analysis phase, a hydrological study must first be carried out in order to know the urban drainage network and identify those areas where there is a risk of runoff accumulation. At present, in Spanish city plans (P.G.O.U.) it is compulsory to realize a flooding study whenever there is a river in the city, in order to prevent construction in flood-prone areas. However, in cities where a river is no present, the urban hydrological network and the risk of flooding caused by the accumulation of runoff are not studied.

After that, at the measures phase, main green areas and multifunctional spaces should be located in the runoff accumulation areas in order to infiltrate as much water as possible. Multifunctional areas are those that are usually used for urban purposes (squares, car parks,...) and that when it is raining, can infiltrate rainwater given their high degree of permeability. In the lower parts of the city, uses that are permeable it is a priority, as these will be the areas with the highest risk of flooding. On the other hand, it is necessary to incorporate stakeholders into the decision-making process so that the proposed measures are agreed by all to ensure the success of the proposals.

Finally, at the regulations phase, the plan will establish a minimum permeable surface ratio, in order to ensure a minimum infiltration of new urban areas. In built areas, repaving projects should be carried out at the neighborhood planning scale to improve infiltration.

All these actions will reduce the probability of flooding, improve the functioning of sewage networks and lower the temperature of the city.

3.3.2 Neighborhood scale

Another characteristic of Mediterranean cities is the steep slope of the cities, with large differences in elevation between the higher and lower parts. This fact further aggravates the torrential nature of rainfall, so it is very important to take actions to retain runoff water too, thus mitigating the effects of urban climate and topography.

For this, at analysis phase, it is necessary to carry out a runoff water study to identify the streets with the steepest slopes ('river streets') and the streets with a low slope that do not allow the evacuation of water generating flooded areas (‘lake streets’) (Fig. 1).

At the measures phase, in the river streets specific SuDS for water retention should be implemented (retention ponds, detention basins, bioretention strips, wetlands…) and in the lake streets SuDS for water infiltration (permeable pavements, rain gardens, infiltration trenches, soakaways…).

On the other hand, street networks should be planned to generate water paths that increase the runoff circulation time in the streets ('blue corridors') and lead it to areas where it can finally infiltrate ('green corridors') (Fig. 2). For planning blue corridors, street crossings must be modified so that water follows the longest path through runoff interceptors (Fig. 3), thus increasing runoff retention. Green corridors should be connected to blue corridors so that the conveyed water is infiltrated.

At the regulations phase, a minimum percentage of runoff infiltration must be established, in relation to the runoff water generated without the implementation of SuDS. For example, it could be agreed that neighborhoods would infiltrate at least one third of the runoff generated without the integration of SuDS.

All these actions will enable cities to provide ecosystem services to the natural environment and contribute to the functions of the hydrological cycle.

3.3.3 Street-Plot

Mediterranean cities are also characterized by the difficulty of maintaining vegetation in the streets due to long and intense dry periods. This is why it is essential to reuse rainwater to maintain green areas throughout the year, recharging the aquifer and ensuring soil moisture.

For this purpose, at the analysis phase it is necessary to carry out a slope study to indicate where the runoff is directed, in order to lead it to the infiltration areas and not to the sewerage system.

So, at the measures phase, it is necessary to design the slopes of the streets and squares to convey runoff to the infiltration surfaces designed for this purpose. For example, sidewalks and pavements should infiltrate runoff into rain gardens and parking areas should convey water to infiltration trenches. Also, converting roofs to green roofs will help maintain vegetation on buildings. At the regulations phase, the plan will establish a reuse a minimum percentage of the collected runoff water in green areas to promote the creation of vegetated areas in the streets and squares.

All these actions will serve to reduce pollution and temperatures in the city, making urban areas better places to live.

The great expansion of cities in the 20th century and the ‘soil sealing’ process has led to a considerable increase in runoff volumes that the sewage networks can no longer absorb, as well as an increase in surface temperatures that has altered the urban climate. This situation has been aggravated by the effects of climate change. The intensification of meteorological phenomena is causing serious economic, social and environmental problems in cities around the world. This situation of vulnerability has generated the need to rethink current urban models, where the presence of water and green spaces serve to improve urban comfort, make cities more resilient and mitigate the effects of climate change.

Sustainable drainage systems have been implemented in cities since the 1990s as a measure to alleviate this serious environmental problem. Their effectiveness has been demonstrated in cities around the world where these systems have mitigated rains, improved water quality and lowered the temperature of urban areas. However, the level of SuDS implementation is limited in most cases to alleviating the effects caused by inadequate urban planning. Some countries are going a step further in this direction by proposing actions to integrate the SuDS into the different urban plans with the so-called 'Water Sensitive Urban Design'.

In the Mediterranean countries it is even more necessary to make progress in this regard, since both the topographical characteristics of the cities and the intense rainfall are generating serious environmental problems, degrading the cities and generating an ever-increasing risk of flooding. In the case of Spain, there are hardly any proposals related to the integration of SuDS in planning, so that the city model is closer to the natural water cycle.

This paper proposes a methodology that presents the steps to follow in order to integrate SuDS in the different urban plans in Spain, Italy and France. The methodology proposes action at the 3 planning scales: the city, the neighborhood and the street-plot. In each of these scales, 3 phases of work are proposed; an analysis phase in which the studies to be carried out beforehand are indicated, a proposal phase in which planning actions are proposed for the integration of SuDS in the plan and in the urban project and finally a regulation phase, in which proposals are indicated that can be incorporated in the urban plans and that will ensure that these systems are incorporated in the planning in the countries of application. This methodology is an important contribution in the field of sustainable planning and water management, as there are no references that have carried out planning and SuDS proposals together.

The application of this methodology will improve the resilience of cities to climate change, reduce their vulnerability and improve the quality of life of their citizens.

Competing interests The authors have no competing interests to declare that are relevant to the content of this article.

Authors' contributions All authors contributed to the conception and design of the study. Rodríguez-Rojas planned and wrote the paper and Abarca-Alvarez and Niño-Soto contributed in the phases and scales of urban intervention.

Funding There has been no funding for this work.

Availability of data and materials Not applicable

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No competing interests reported.

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Methodology for integrating SuDS in urban planning; the case of Spain

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