Agricultural Pesticides used by small-scale farmers in Kenya: What are the experiences of the farmers?

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-20784/v2

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Agricultural Pesticides used by small-scale farmers in Kenya: What are the experiences of the farmers?

https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-20784/v2

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Several crops are grown in Kenya for commercial and subsistence purposes. However, pests have become a major threat to crops. To address this, farmers use different kinds of pesticides. While it is a fact that pesticides are heavily used, there is scanty literature on the nature and types of pesticides used by small-scale farmers in Kenya. Further, the extent to which the integrated pest management plan is used is not known. Therefore, this survey sought to explore major crops grown in Kenya, pests affecting them, the nature of agricultural pesticides used, and finally, the effectiveness of the agricultural pest control methods used by small-scale farmers. This was a descriptive study. 95 respondents from different counties in Kenya participated in this study. A self-administered questionnaire comprised of open-ended and close-ended questions was used in data collection. The studies revealed that farmers practiced subsistence farming. Major pests affecting crops were insects and rodents. Pests majorly affected crops while they were on the farm. Most of the agricultural pesticides used by the respondents were insecticides and rodenticides. The study established that artificial pesticides are more effective and most preferred than home-made pesticides. It recommends the adoption of integrated pest management, organic farming, and communal approaches to pest control. It further recommends training on best practices of agriculture.

Pesticide use

health risk

integrated pest management

Kenya

Agriculture is the backbone of the economic growth in Kenya. According to USAID, about 75% of Kenyans earn all or part of their income from this sector(USAID - Kenya, 2019). Agriculture accounts for 33% of the nation’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) (USAID - Kenya, 2019). In Kenya, several crops are grown such as beans, green grams, maize, vegetables, watermelon, tomatoes, and fruits of different kinds. Crop damage caused by insects and pests and diseases is common in developing countries and creates a great economic loss(Loha, Lamoree, Weiss, & Boer, 2018). Pests have become a major threat to agriculture in Kenya. For instance, a report by WVI observed that in 2017 an estimated, 40 percent of farms were reported to be infested with the fall armyworm (World Vision International, 2017). To address this, farmers use different kinds of artificial pesticides and homemade pesticides. Pesticides have important benefits (International Food Information Council Foundation, 2019). They improve productivity, protect crop losses, control vector diseases and in some scenarios, pesticides increase the quality of food (Aktar, Sengupta, & Chowdhury, 2009; Damalas, 2009). This supports the argument that without the use of pesticides, farmers would not be able to harvest significant yields (Soko, 2018). Several studies report increased use of pesticides throughout the developing world, and pesticide demand is increasing due to the current system of crop production, which prioritizes high agricultural yields (Sarkar, Gil, Keeley, Jansen, 2021). A study by Lohan found out that there were increases in imports of pesticides in Kenya from 2008 to 2015. It further found that there were more than 11 companies in Kenya involved in the manufacturing of varying pesticide products(Loha, Lamoree, Weiss, & Boer, 2018). In a study on the potential environmental impacts of pesticide use in the vegetable sub-sector in Kenya, it was revealed that organophosphates, carbamates, pyrethroids, tetranortriterpenoids, and carcinogens were used (Macharia, Mithofer, & Waibel, 2009)^. The study further established that approximately 60% of the pesticide’s quantities were indicated to be bad actor chemicals, meaning they affected the environment negatively, 64% to be groundwater contaminants, and 47% were very harmful to beneficial insects(Macharia, Mithofer, & Waibel, 2009; Soko, 2018).

Literature on pesticides in Kenya is skewed towards pesticides and health. Several studies have documented pesticides and health (Macharia, 2015; Loha, Lamoree, Weiss, & Boer, 2018) pesticide and their effect on heavy metals on fish and aquatic organisms in Kenya (Nzeve, 2014). Only a few have focused on pesticide use, for example, a report on pesticide use in Kenya (USAID Kenya Agricultural Value Chain Enterprises, 2014). Also, most of such studies focus on large-scale farmers leaving gaps in pesticide use by small-scale farmers in Kenya. Thus, this study sought to find out the following: crops that are most affected and by pests and the state in which they are affected, agricultural pests found in parts of Kenya, environmental conditions that encourage pests to thrive. In addition, the study sought to investigate the forms of pesticides, home-made or artificial forms, mostly used and evaluate the level of effectiveness of agricultural pest control methods used. Finally, the study explored ways of improving the methods of pest control and assessed the changes observed in the local environment regarding the presence of trees, farming methods, and the existence of apiary activities.

GDP Gross Domestic Product

USAID United States Agency for International Development

FIDA Federation of Women Lawyers

GIEFSCR Global Initiative for Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights

SOFA State of Food and Agriculture

NARIGP National Agricultural and Rural Inclusive Growth Project

Study site

This study involved farmers from different counties in Kenya. These included” Kajiado, Kakamega, Nyandarua, Lamu, Machakos, Nakuru, Muranga, Bungoma, Busia, Embu, Kericho, Kisumu, Makueni, Nairobi, Siyaya, Homabay, Kilifi, Meru, Nyeri, Taita Taveta, Uasin Gichu, Baringo, Kiambu, Kitui, Laikipia, Marsabit, Mombasa, Nandi, Narok, Transzoa and Vihiga. The respondents were selected because they were current or former students of Tangaza University College, Kenya, studying MBA in Social Entrepreneurship which runs courses on agri-business. The program is offered by the University of Milan and was launched and operated at Tangaza University College in Kenya in 2014. The program is based on individualized consultancy through business coaching, application of business ideas to real-life business, mentorship, and creating networks. One of the key focus areas of the program is agribusiness. To get the respondents, an online google-form questionnaire was sent to all the 257 current and alumni of the MBA program who were doing agribusiness in 2020 and 2021. They were purposively selected and included in the sample because the target population had knowledge of agribusiness.

Questionnaire survey

The respondents were the people who practiced farming or agribusiness at various scales. They comprised of those who had a farm, who were supporting farmers by providing inputs to farmers and finally those that had basic knowledge in agribusiness. Out of 257 targeted current and MBA alumni 95 filled the questionnaires online representing a 37% response rate. Out of those that participated in the survey, 76 (80%) had a farm, 6 (6%) were supporting farming activities by providing inputs, and 13 (14%) had basic knowledge in agribusiness. The self-administered questionnaire had four parts and comprised of open-ended and close-ended questions. The first part sought to solicit background information from respondents such as gender, age, and area where respondents were carrying our agricultural activities, types of crops grown by farmers, extent farmers practice farming, and size of the land used for farming. Part two sought to find out the experience of farmers in areas such as the most common pests in their farms, state of crops the pests destroy, environmental conditions that encourage these pests to flourish, artificial pesticides and home-made pesticides used to control agricultural pests, agricultural pest control methods mostly used and their effectiveness. The third part was on environmental-related activities on farms. Specifically, this explored the prevalence of trees, ground cover, use of fertilizers, apiary activities, gullies, and the existence of firewood in the area. Finally, the fourth part sought to find out the methods of improving pesticide use.

Table 1: Questionnaire relating to the background information, experiences, and perceptions

Part1: Background information
	Gender
	Age of respondents
	Area where the respondents were carrying out agricultural activities
	Type of crops grown by farmers
	Extent farmers practice farming/gardening, agriculture
	Size of land used for farming/gardening, agriculture
Part 2: Experiences of farmers
	Most common pests in the respondents’ farms
	Nature of food do these pests cause harm
	Environmental conditions that encourage pests
	Artificial pesticides used to control agricultural pests
	Home-made pesticides used to control agricultural pests
	Agricultural pest control methods mostly used in your garden/farm
	Effectiveness of agricultural pest control methods used in the location of your garden/farm
Part 3: Environmental related activities in the area
	There is increase in trees There is evidence of increase in ground cover There is increase in use of fertilizers Apiary activities are on the increase There is increase in the gullies (trenches in the area) Firewood is getting scarce
Part 4: Improving the practice
	Methods to improve on the pest control methods

Data analysis

Data was analyzed using descriptive statistics. We used frequencies to summarize data that was collected from close-ended and open-ended questions. Open-ended questions data was summarized into themes then frequencies were drawn.

Demographic and socio-characteristics of the respondents

Size of farms and nature of farmers

The 95 participants who comprised 57% were male and 38% were female were small-scale farmers cultivating pieces of land of various sizes ranging from one acre to five acres. An earlier study by Nguetti, Imungi, Okoth, Wangâ, Mbacham, & Mitema (2018) revealed similar results that there were more male farmers than females in Mweya which is predominantly a rice-growing zone. This shows that most farm owners are male. This concurs with a report which states that customary law and practices, prohibit women from owning or inheriting land and other forms of property in Kenya (Hakijamii, GI-ESCR, FIDA, 2016)^. Women are often a crucial resource in agriculture and the rural economy across the developing world (SOFA Team and Cheryl Doss, 2011). Women account for nearly half of the world’s smallholder farmers and produce 70% of Africa’s food but less than 20% of the land is owned by them (Abass, 2018; Gaafar, 2014). This shows that while men own land those working on the land are mostly women. About 25% were small-scale farmers who cultivate on farm sizes of below one acre. This is significant in that it can point to the choice of pesticides these farmers are likely to use.

Environment where the farms were located

To find out whether the location and nature of the environment had any relationship with pest occurrences, we studied the vegetation cover and farming practices carried out by respondents. Regarding the presence of vegetative cover, 60% of the respondents stated that there was increase of trees and 50% observed that there was increase in ground cover in the areas where their farms were situated. This implies that farms were moderately in the regions where there was vegetative cover. As for use of fertilizers, 84% witnessed increase in use of fertilizers. Farmers relied hugely on fertilizers implying that the soil nutrients were poor in the area. This could have been because of continual use of land with similar crops. Quite a small percentage 17% of the respondents experienced increase in apiary activities. This implies that the area is not conducive for the bees perhaps because of the farming practices in the area. The increase of trenches and gullies as observed by 39% of the respondents point to the poor methods of farming the area. The phenomenon of scare of firewood as observed by 88% of the respondents imply that there is a growing deforestation in the areas.

Crops mostly grown and affected by pests

The crops reported grown by the small-scale farmers were vegetables (95%) maize (69%), beans (52%) beans, fruits (36%) Irish potatoes (25%) sweet potatoes (21%), coffee (10%), green grams (8%), Groundnuts (6%), Tea (5%), Wheat (4%) and animal feed (grass) 2%. Cassava, sunflower, oats, pyrethrum, Miiji (peas) and Mira were least grown by small-scale farmers mentioned by 1% each by respondents.

The most common crops affected by pesticides reported by the respondents were vegetables 98%, maize 59%, beans 32%, fruits 27%, Irish potatoes 17%, sweet potatoes 9%, coffee 8%, green grams 4%, Groundnuts 2%, and Tea 2%.

From the findings, it is interesting to note that the crops mostly cultivated by farmers were the most affected by the pesticides. Again, most of the farmers grow more staple crops than cash crops. Furthermore, such crops were grown on smaller pieces of land for agribusiness or own consumption hence requiring efficient ways of using small pieces of land.

Nature of crops affected by pests

Regarding the nature of crops, mostly affected by pests, most of the respondents 66% stated that pests affected fresh foods, thus when the crops are in the farm, 26% stated that pests affected both fresh crops, packaged food, 7% stated that pests affected packaged food. This shows that the pests majorly affected crops while they were in the farm.

Common Pests affecting crops grown in Kenya

The common pests affect crops in Kenya. As noted in the table 84% of the most common pests were caterpillar-related pests. These were stalk borers, white flies, worms, armyworms, and cutworms. Other pests include, rodents (44%), aphids (31%), termites and ants (21%) weevils (25%), fungus and bright (23%), insects (16%), and viral-related pests (9%). This indicates that the major pests affecting farmers were caterpillars, rodents, aphids, termites, weevils, and insects. This concurs with a by Kumela, Simiyu, Sisay, Likhayo, Mendesil, Gohole, and Tefera (2019) report that most farmers in Kenya (97%) encounter damage by caterpillar related pests such as fall armyworm on their farms and they estimate an average 47.3% of crop damage in Kenya, with an estimated yield reduction between 0.8 to 1 tonne/ha.

Conditions that encourage pests to thrive

Two main factors were mentioned to contribute to pests, two themes emerged namely farming practices and environmental issues.

Farming practices

The majority of the farmers pointed out that lack of knowledge of cultivation contributed to pests thriving on their farms. Some farmers did not observe best farming practices such as observing crop rotation, weeding at the right time, and early planting. One farmer attributed this to the fact that small-scale farmers cultivate on small pieces of land which make it difficult to do crop rotation let alone leave the land farrow for a while. Some communities were practicing monoculture which led to planting the same crops on the same piece of land. This is supported by a farmer Admin (2019) who advised others by explaining that:

“Growing maize alone is risky since a farmer can lose an entire harvest to diseases and pests. There is a need therefore to explore other crops that can act as a buffer against hunger during the dry spell.”

One of the farmers indicated that due to the small sizes of land, he does not observe crop rotation which should reduce pests. The study also revealed that for certain crops such as maize, being staple food crops, farmers had no option for other crops. Poor pest control in the neighboring farms contributed to an increase in pests that would migrate to neighboring farms. As one farmer observed:

“When I spray my farm to control pests and my neighbor does not do the same, the pests from their farms move to mine. Practices such as late planting, contaminated seeds, unsterilized farm tools, and overgrown weeds were pointed as contributing factors to harbor some pests.”

Environmental factors

Some farmers stated that temperature changes contributed to pests. They stated that wind, heat, cold, wet weather, dry seasons, humidity, excessive rains, drought, dampness, and inconsistent rains contribute to pest breeding:

“Wet conditions force pests to seek a warmer place in the crops and dry conditions force pests to look for food from the crops.”

Too much light or sunshine also forces pests to seek shelter beneath the plants. This makes crops more vulnerable to pests.

“Fluctuating weather from extreme cold in the evening to morning and, excess heat during the day makes pests thrive.”

Some respondents stated that there is a disturbance in the ecosystem. One farmer stressed the point and said,

“We no longer have natural predators like chameleons, lizards, and spiders which used to eat pests.”

Artificial and home-made pesticides used by farmers in Kenya

As shown in Table 2 the commonly reported artificial forms of pesticides used by small scale farmers were Actara, Acetylic, Alphatox, Americal ball warm, Antac, Copex, detergent sprays, Diazinon, Doom, Dudu dust, Dudthline, Fuko Kill, Fungicides, Gladiator, Hervicides, Karate, Mexican Marigold, Milrazi, Ogor, Osho Powder, Profen, Pydist, Rat poison, Repellants, Rindomil, Rodenticides, and Seven sprays. These can be categorized as insecticides, which kill or repel pests of the insect category; Rodenticides which kill, reduce, or repel rats, mice, and moles. However, there were no reports on the use of herbicides which are used for killing or reducing weeds by the respondents. The fact that farmers reported a diversity of pesticides shows the overreliance on pesticides and implies the magnitude of pests on their farms.

Small scale farmers reported the following home-made pesticides: Aloe vera, Ashes, biological controls, Vitter yellow flowers, cloves, herbs, Marigold plant, Mubangi, Need Indica, Pepper, Rabbit urine, Salt, and Solanum apple. These remedies were used to kill, repel, or reduce insect related pests and rodents.

Table 2: Commonly used artificial and homemade pesticides used by small-scale farmers

Artificial pesticides	Home-made pesticides
Actara	Aloe vera
Actellic	Ashes
Alphatox	Biological controls
American ball warm	Bitter yellow flowers
Antac	Cloves
Coopex	Herbs
Detergent sprays	Marigold plant
Diazinon	Mubangi
Doom	Neem Indica
Dudu dust	Pepper
Duduthline	Rabbit urine
Fuko kill	Salt
Fungicides	Solanum apple
Gradiator
Herbicides
Karate
Mexican Marigold
Milrazi
Ogor
Osho powder
Profen
Pydist
Rat poison
Repellants
Rindomil
Rodenticides
Seven sprays

Types of agricultural pest control methods used by farmers

Regarding the usage of pesticides, the study revealed that the majority 80% of the respondents used artificial pesticides followed by those that were using home-made pesticides 68%, and those that were using a mixture were the least 65%. This suggests that the respondents’ most preferred remedy for pesticides was artificial pesticides followed by home-made pesticides.

Effectiveness of Methods of Controlling Pests

Respondents stated that the use of artificial pesticides was the most effective method to control pests, then 63% stated that a mixture of artificial and home-made pesticides was effective and finally 62% stated that home-made pesticides were effective. This finding suggests that the majority of the respondents perceive that artificial pesticides are more effective than home-made and mixed artificial and home-made pesticides.

Environment

The fact that respondents observed an increase in the use of fertilizers can be explained by the FAO report which detected that the cultivation of cereals on the same land without the addition of organic or inorganic fertilizers leads to low yields, which in turn leads to the inability to afford the purchase of inputs (Rapsomanikis, 2015). Farmers have been consistently and steadily increasing nitrogen application rates(Sheahan, Black, & Jayne, 2012). Perhaps the fact that most small-scale farmers had small pieces of land means that farmers were intensively using the same piece of land which result in depletion of nutrients hence the need for fertilizers. Overuse of land without resting perhaps makes it a good breeding ground for pests. Ironically, the presence of pesticides should lead to reduced apiary activities. However, the observed increase in apiary activities suggests the presence of foliage and flowering plants. Furthermore, the fact that the majority of the farmers were able to point out several pesticides used could imply massive usage of pesticides in Kenya. This assertion is supported by a study by a study of Nguetti, Imungi, Okoth, Wangâ, Mbacham, and Mitema (2018) who established that almost all farmers in the areas listed between 2 and 11 names of pesticides mostly used in tomato farming. Also, Ndugu (2019) reports relatively high concentrations of OCPs (DDTs and HCHs) in central Kenya. This could imply the high use of artificial pesticides on farms. This shows that artificial pesticides are widely used.

Crops grown, and mostly affected by pests in Kenya

Most small and medium-scale farmers practiced subsistence farming. Most of these crops were vegetables, cereals, and fruits. This concurs with the FAO report which observed that small and poor farmers, who may not be fully integrated into markets, choose to produce their main staple food crops but also diversify their production to achieve better diets (Rapsomanikis, 2015; D’Alessandro, Caballero, Lichte, & Simpkin, 2015). Perhaps this explains why only a few of the small-scale farmers in our study were involved in cash crops and maize and beans were among the most grown crops. This also affirms that Maize, (Zea mays) is one of the most common foods and cash crops for both commercial and many rural farm families in Africa. Interestingly, there was a relationship between crops and pesticide infection. Crops mostly grown by farmers were the most affected by pests. Maize is mostly grown in Kenya (Midega, Pittchara, Pickett, Hailua, & Khana, 2018) and was on the top list of being affected by pests.

Common agricultural pest species and state of crops affected

The common pests were majorly reported as insects and rodents. It was observed that crops were also infested by fungus, and viral infections. Several studies indicate common pests that affect the major crops like maize as follows: Stalk borers (Busseola fusca), African armyworm (Spodoptera exempta), Seedling weevils (Tanymecus spp. & Mesokeuvus spp), Larger grain borer (LGB) Weevils Moths, Red flour beetle, Dried bean beetles, Grey leaf spots (GLS), Maize streak virus, Northern leaf blight, Maize streak virus (MSV), (Cicadulina mbila), Leaf rusts (Puccinia sorghi), Leaf blights (Helminthosparium turcicum and maydis) and Common smut (Ustilago maydis)(Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock, Fisheries and Irrigation National Agricultural and Rural inclusive Growth Project (NARIGP, 2018; D’Alessandro, Caballero, Lichte, & Simpkin, 2015).

It is important to note that pesticides were used to kill pests and treat infections. The common pests were those that affected crops on the farms and during storage. This finding is supported by that of Nguetti, Imungi, Okoth, Wangâ, Mbacham, & Mitema, (2018) who established that most of the pesticides over 80% are used during pre-harvest, and only 6% were used during post-harvest.

Composition of homemade and artificial forms of agricultural pest control methods are mostly used

The study established that farming methods and changes in the environment contributed to thriving pest. Majorly farmers used artificial pesticides compared to homemade. This concurs with studies of (Constantine, Kansiime, Mugambi, Nunda, Chacha, Rware & Day, 2020; Nyangau, Muriithi, Diiro, Akutse & Subramanian, 2020) who established that chemical pesticides are used widely by smallholders despite awareness of the risks to human health and the environment. In their study, they established that this was attributed to perceptions of effectiveness, primarily speed of action and spectrum of activity, availability, and affordability. Additionally, those that used biopesticides believed such biopesticides were safer compared to artificial pesticides. In the present study, although farmers viewed both pesticides and biopesticides as costly, they invested in the former due to their perceived effectiveness. This finding concurs with earlier studies like that of Constaine etal. (2020).

The finding on higher use of artificial pesticides than biopesticides could also be attributed to the fact that artificial pesticides are readily available in the Agro-vets and are precisely easy to use. It is interesting to note also that quite a good percentage of farmers use a mixture of homemade remedies and artificial forms of agricultural pesticides. This can be explained perhaps by the fact that small-scale farmers tend to use locally available pesticides which have no monetary cost. Once the locally available strategies do not yield positive results farmers then move to artificial remedies. Several studies have provided homemade remedies that can be used to address pests such as a report by NARIGP (Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock, Fisheries, and Irrigation National Agricultural and Rural Inclusive Growth Project, 2018). However, the extent these remedies are used is not known.

Effectiveness of agricultural pest control methods used in Kenya

Regarding the effectiveness of pest control methods, there is no clear cut as to which ones are more effective than the others among home-made, artificial, and integration of the two. This suggests the dilemma of farmers to commit to one type of method. However, it is interesting that quite a significant percentage of the farmers opined that a mixture of artificial and homemade was effective. This suggests that small-scale farmers use integrated pest control to a certain level. Perhaps they have the advantage of the size of the farms compared to large-scale farmers who may find it difficult to deploy homemade pesticides for the large farms.

Strategies for improving the methods

Regarding suggestions to improve pest control, four themes emerged namely adoption of integrated pest management, adoption of organic farming, training on best practices of agriculture, and adoption of a communal approach to pest control.

Adoption of integrated pest management

Farmers proposed that there is a need to use a mixture of home-made pest control measures and artificial agricultural pesticides which are not harmful to the fauna and flora. Among the local measures were ashes and chilies to control insects such as aphids in vegetables.

Training on best practices of agriculture including organic farming

Farmers should be given information on the best pesticides and how to use them for optimal performance such as planting at the right time of the season, crop rotation, using push and pull technology, improving physical barriers to keep away pests, proper storage, weeding, the practice of biological technologies, weeding at an early stage, by using those that are friendly to the soils and the environment, drying the crops well before storage. Farmers proposed using organic methods of farming such as planting pest repellant varieties of crops to protect crops that are prone to be affected by pests. Trained extension officers should educate farmers on new pests and proper pest control methods.

Awareness of homemade pesticides and artificial pesticides

Farmers proposed the creation of awareness on homemade pesticides and what they are used for. To that effect, there is a need to document the homemade remedies, how they are made, how they are used, and what pests they are used on. Furthermore, it would be important to document the level of effectiveness. Secondly, farmers stated that there is a need for awareness on artificial pesticides, especially accessibility, how to use them, prescriptions, effects, and effectiveness. It was also suggested that there is a need to create awareness of fake pesticides that are circulating in the market.

Future Research

There is a need to carry out more research on what works best where scientific research to determine which crops are resistant to which pests. Second, there is a need to document homemade or biopesticide and the associated pests that they kill, reduce, or repel. Such a study could be a comparative study of homemade pesticides used in different countries. Such a study would be beneficial as it could advance an integrated pest management plan.

Ethics approval and consent to participate: Participants filled out an ethics approval form to agree to participate in the research.
Consent for publication: I give consent to have this work published by the Journal of Pest Science
Availability of data and materials: Raw dataset will be made available in an excel file
Competing interests: I report no competing interests
Funding: This study was not funded

Authors' contributions: This article was sorely conceived and designed by Jeketule Jacob Soko

Acknowledgments:

I would like to thank my colleague at Tangaza University College, Dr. Timothy Gachanga, who peer-reviewed the manuscript. I would like also to give special thanks to my family Domi, my wife, Joseph, Mariann, and Deborah my children, for their emotional support. I also want to thank the Institute for Social Transformation for encouraging me to write this article.

Author information

Author: Jeketule Jacob Soko

Affiliation: Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology, COHRED, Nairobi, Kenya

Email: [email protected]

ORCID 0000-0001-7427-9188

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No competing interests reported.

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Agricultural Pesticides used by small-scale farmers in Kenya: What are the experiences of the farmers?

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Abstract

Introduction

Abbreviations

Materials And Methods

Study site

Questionnaire survey

Data analysis

Results

Demographic and socio-characteristics of the respondents

Size of farms and nature of farmers

Environment where the farms were located

Crops mostly grown and affected by pests

Nature of crops affected by pests

Common Pests affecting crops grown in Kenya

Farming practices

Environmental factors

Artificial and home-made pesticides used by farmers in Kenya

Types of agricultural pest control methods used by farmers

Effectiveness of Methods of Controlling Pests

Discussion

Environment

Crops grown, and mostly affected by pests in Kenya

Common agricultural pest species and state of crops affected

Composition of homemade and artificial forms of agricultural pest control methods are mostly used

Effectiveness of agricultural pest control methods used in Kenya

Strategies for improving the methods

Adoption of integrated pest management

Training on best practices of agriculture including organic farming

Awareness of homemade pesticides and artificial pesticides

Future Research

Declarations

References

Additional Declarations

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