Bioactive compounds containing the four most common and often used powdered spices for food preparation have been studied concerning lead contamination and human health risk assessment, especially in branded and nonbranded categories. A total of 72 spice samples were analysed using Varian AA240FS flame atomic absorption spectrometry. A validated and optimized method using hot plate digestion was used for this study. Freshly prepared standards were used to construct a calibration curve. The overall range of lead levels in branded and nonbranded spice samples was found to be < 0.27–2.80, < 0.27–0.48, < 0.27–13.83, 0.28–8.19 and < 0.27–5.56, < 0.27–3.84, < 0.27–37.29, 0.29–0.65 for cumin powder, red pepper chili, turmeric powder, and coriander powder, respectively. The nonbranded item has shown slightly higher value than branded items except coriander powder. Approximately 90% of the spice samples were shown to be within the maximum allowable limit by the Bangladesh Standard. The studied Pb level was inconsistent in both categories of spices but did not have any health implications in the case of carcinogenic and noncarcinogenic studies. Overall, Pb concentrations in most common spices collected from Dhaka city were found to be slightly higher in nonbranded items. This shows us that it is of vital importance that the areas where spices are collected are clean, especially by means of Pb, because these spices can cause more benefits than harm they may provide in such a contamination.
Research Article
Lead Exposure of Four Biologically Important Common Branded and Nonbranded Spices: Relative Analysis and Health Implication
https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-2087533/v1
This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License
Version 1
posted
You are reading this latest preprint version
Bioactive compound
lead accumulation
estimated daily intake
powdered spice
branded and nonbranded
health risk
Natural bioactive compounds in different medicinal plants, herbs and spices have natural power in drug development for thousands of years. From these natural sources, several drugs and bioactive compounds have originated, and people are using them as ethno-medicines. In addition, it has a vital role in the human diet to boost the flavour, colour and aroma of foods [1–3]. Recently, many computational studies have found potential bioactives from these natural sources against the targets of SARS-CoV-2 [4]. Spices are biologically important drugs that are keen to taste and aroma and are also used to treat various diseases [5]. Spice biochemicals are well known for their well-being role in a wide variety of antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antimicrobial activities [4, 6]. For example, curcumin was the most important bioactive compound released from turmeric and was exposed to an antiviral mode of action in the case of many viruses, such as hepatitis and influenza viruses [7, 8]. Recently, scientists found that spice bioactive piperine has shown a higher binding affinity with the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein receptor-binding domain and Mpro than few of the currently used drugs [9]. More recently, another study correlated the incidence of COVID-19 and the consumption of spices in 163 countries. Interestingly, the countries with lower intakes of spices per capita revealed a higher number of COVID-19 cases as well as mortality per million populations. Furthermore, the retrieval rate was also higher in countries with a higher intake of spices [10]. The beneficial effect of spice bioactivity might be due to their immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory potential observed against various diseases [11]. The severity of COVID-19 escalates mostly because of the hyperinflammatory response mediated by cytokine storms, leading to acute respiratory distress syndrome. Spice bioactive compounds are known to revoke proinflammatory cytokines and have the potential to reduce respiratory distress [4, 12]. In view of this biological importance, people in the South Asian region use spices in cooking processes to impart aroma, colour and taste of food and sometimes mask unwanted smells as well as ethno-medicine. It is also cherished for its colouring as a preservative and fumigant [13].
In contrast, these notable biologically active compounds containing plant-like spices are being contaminated through different outsiders, such as organic and inorganic pollutants that are also bioactive adversely towards the human body. The decline in environmental quality occurs as a consequence of countless diverse human activities. Undesirable changes in the environment cause pollution for unsafe activities on plants, animals and humans. However, the cruelty of the environmental impact and harmful effect on human health depend on the nature and concentration of the pollutants [14]. An individual group of environmental contaminants of carbon-based and inorganic substances maintains some explicit characteristics, such as harmfulness, persistence, and bioaccumulation, also called persistent toxic pollutants, which remain in the environment for a long time with non or low biodegradability in nature and are transferred to the food chain [15]. The most considerable category of this is persistent pollutants, which are able to create severe impacts and threats at a global scale, not only to the environmental components (water, air, soil) but also to human health [16]. If the inorganic persistent chemicals are classified into different subcategories, heavy metals will be an extremely toxic part of that category, which is nonbiodegradable. Heavy metals can easily accumulate in soils, water and biological sections. The accumulated or transferred heavy metals enter the food chain, finally disturbing the usual functions of the human body [17]. Studies show that a major route of exposure to heavy metals is the consumption of contaminated food; more than 420,000 people pass away each year after eating contaminated foodstuff worldwide, and one out of ten individuals becomes affected [18]. Consumption of contaminated food can cause more than 200 risks of acute and chronic diseases. It has been found to increase the risk of cardiovascular, neurological, and renal diseases and digestive infections to cancer [19]. For example, cancer is one of the prominent causes of death and is projected to reach 28.4 million cases of cancer worldwide in 2040, which is a 47% upsurge from 2020. According to the International Agency for Research on Cancer, in Bangladesh, the cancer-related mortality rate was 7.5% and will reach up to 13% by 2030, which is almost twice the rate of 2005[20].
Several studies have shown that carcinogenic lead (Pb) in the human body comes mainly from food items, and approximately 50% originates from plants [21]. Pb is one of the most common heavy metal contaminants in the total food chain. Plants are remarkably unsafe to it. Pb has no biological importance in plant life, even though it can generate morphological, physiological, and biochemical problems [22]. However, Pb can easily accumulate in the soil and roots. Adsorption of lead in the roots has been detected in several kinds of plants. Captivated lead is stored in the roots, and some fraction of it is conveyed to aerial plant parts. Then, come leafy greens such as lettuce and Swiss chard. Lead in plants also has an effect on soil enzymatic actions and microbial biomass at low concentrations and an inhibitory effect at high concentrations. The Pb contents with increased values linearly decreased enzyme actions, which was obvious, particularly for aryl sulfatase. Most importantly, Pb can survive up to 2000 years on Earth and is harmful to plants in several ways [22, 23].
Bangladesh is a densely populated country, with approximately 165 million people consuming a vast amount of spices every day. The spice market is developing to branded with packaged form since users are screening unwillingness to go for traditional systems of processing spices. As the females of today are full of activity with their careers, the choice of branded spice powder is better day by day [24]. The transformation of nonbranded to branded powdered spices is developing by approximately 15% a year [25]. In a recent study, 42% of users chose only branded spice powder, and 58% chose nonbranded spice powder [26]. People’s increasing consciousness about hygienic spices and busy urban life has led to a rise in branded spice consumption. From the survey, it was found that on average, 90.70% of people believed that the spice powders were not of good quality. A study on the types of adulterants added to the spice powder according to consumers’ suspects revealed that the addition of high-grade low-grade raw spice was at the top position, followed by brick dust and sand. Based on consumers’ opinion, cancer, chronic nephritis and high blood pressure were the top possible diseases that may be associated with the consumption of contaminated spice powder [27]. Since consumers have many options for choosing branded spice powder, they want the one that assures purity and delivers authentic taste and color. Therefore, the researchers conducted a study on powdered spices of branded and nonbranded categories to determine the comparative contamination and health implication assessment due to Pb exposure.
2.1 Sample Collection
The most communal powdered spices (turmeric, red pepper, cumin, coriander) from different branded (packet) and nonbranded (loose) spices were collected directly from three local markets in Dhaka city arbitrarily. Three branded samples and three nonbranded samples for every spice in each market were collected for analysis. A 500-grams packet of each branded and nonbranded spice sample was composed from the selected markets. A total of 72 spice samples were collected that were directly used in different households and hotels interested in food preparation. The traditional picture of spices is presented in figure 1.
2.2 Sample treatment prior to analysis
Analytical grade chemicals and reagents were kept organized from official local suppliers. For digestion purposes, 69% normapure nitric acid (HNO3) from VWR Chemical made by French and 30% (w/w) hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) from Scharlab made by Spain were preserved. The glassware was soaked in 3 M HNO3 overnight and washed and rinsed with deionized water to minimize the chances of interference. Ultrapure deionized water (18 Ω) was used throughout the study. In this process, four separate batches for four different spices were treated. Each batch was maintained with more than one blank, sample, duplicate and spike sample. Samples were taken (1.0 g), and 10 mL conc. HNO3. The samples were placed in a hot plate (at 110°C) until the sample volume was much reduced and more viscous fluid was observed. The samples were kept out of the hot plate to cool, and then 1 mL 30% H2O2 was added and again kept in the hotplate (at 110°C) to ensure a clear solution. After that, each solution was filtered into a vial and diluted to 10 g with ultrapure-deionized water.
2.3 Instrument Optimization
A Varian AA240 FS atomic absorption spectrometer was prepared for the determination of Pb bestowing to batch by batch. The atomic absorption spectrometer contained manual sampling tools, and the atomic signal was measured for Pb in integrated mode. To obtain the highest sensitivity, the experimental conditions employed with the AAS instrument were initially optimized. Working range standard solutions of Pb were prepared for each batch analysis by serial dilution of 1000 mg/kg. A standard stock solution of Pb was prepared using 1% (w/w) Suprapure Nitric acid (Merch, Darmstadt, Germany). Calibration curves were constructed for every time of analysis by plotting the absorbance of the element versus the element concentration. The constructed calibration curve was subsequently utilized to determine the concentration of Pb in the spice samples. The characteristic concentrations in all cases were below 0.060 mg/L, and the r values were over 0.9990. The results were expressed as mg/kg or ppm of actual weight.
2.4 Quality Control and Quality Assurance Program
As an ISO 17025 accredited laboratory, the environmental conditions were well kept in standard and all experimental areas were cleaned every day for sample preparation for analysis. All obligatory precautions were taken into account to confirm the accuracy and consistency of the results of trace element analysis. All the equipment was under calibration coverage, and the analysis records were documented. All the chemicals were certified and international grade. The digestion was performed under a fume hood with covered watch glass to remove contamination. Each spice sample was analysed in triplicate, and the average of the triplicate samples is listed. The instrument was properly optimized, and the lamp was set properly. Each analysis was maintained with a blank subtracted. To confirm and ensure the quality assurance and accuracy of the concentration of the element in the collected samples, each analysis was performed in duplicate to compare the element concentrations, which described the precession and accuracy of the analytical method for metal trace element analysis in the collected sample. Internal quality control charts were also constructed to monitor the elongation of method validation, continuously checking the accuracy of analytical data from day to day in the laboratory. Furthermore, each sample analysis was maintained with a spike recovery performance evaluation for accuracy of the analytical method and to check instrument performance. All spiked samples were prepared as described for the collected sample preparation. The calculated percent recovery for the trace metal analysis was within the acceptable 90%-110% recovery range, validating the results of this study.
2.5 Calculations
2.5.1 Concentration of Lead in Spice Samples:
The concentration of lead in spice samples was calculated by using the formula:
where A= concentration of heavy metal in digested solution, W= final weight after digestion, and M=weight of the sample.
2.5.2 Human Health Risk Assessment:
Human health risk assessment by exposure to lead was estimated with the analysis of estimated daily intake (EDI), target hazard quotient (THQ), and carcinogenic risk (CR).
The EDIs for the analysed metals were calculated by using the formula:
where FIR is the food ingestion rate (g/person/day), which is 10.5 g for red chili, 5.25 g for turmeric, 3.5 for coriander and 3.5 g for cumin for Bangladeshi people [28]; MC= mean concentration of lead in spice samples (mg/kg, actual weight basis); and BW = average body weight (adult 70 kg).
THQ is typically used to estimate the potential noncarcinogenic risk of pollutants. It is the ratio of EDI and reference dose (RfD, mg/kg-BW/day) that is expressed by:
The RfDs are based on 0.004 BW/day for Pb. Efr is the exposure frequency, which is 365 days/year; Ed is the exposure duration, which is 60 years; and T is the average time exposure, which is 365×60 [29]. If the THQ value is lower than 1, the exposed population should not experience any adverse health hazard. Conversely, if the THQ value is 1, there is a potential health risk, and the probability of health risk will increase with increasing THQ value.
Cancer risks due to lifetime exposure to Pb through the consumption of the selected spice sample were measured using the equation:
where CSF is the carcinogenic slope factor of 0.0085 mg/kg/day for Pb set by USFPA, USDOE, FAO/WHO. EDI is the estimated daily intake of Pb. Acceptable risk levels for carcinogens range from 10-4 (risk of developing cancer over a human lifetime is 1 in 10,000) to 10-6 (risk of developing cancer over a human lifetime is 1 in 1,000,000) [30].
3.1 Valuation and Comparison of Pb in Branded and Nonbranded Spices:
The digested and entirely prepared samples (including blank, duplicate and spike samples) were analysed using a flame atomic absorption spectrophotometer, and the concentration of Pb was calculated using equation no. (1) at the mg/kg level on a weight-weight basis. The measured concentration of Pb for branded and nonbranded spices is presented in Table 2 with the standard deviation. The average concentration of Pb, data range, and maximum allowable limit are also mentioned in the Table 2.
The average value of the branded spices decreased in the order turmeric powder> coriander>cumin> red pepper chili. However, the nonbranded items showed the order of turmeric>cumin powder and red chili> coriander. This implies that the turmeric powder was most adulterated as branded and nonbranded items. The study also found that the average value of Pb for Cumin Powder, Red Pepper powder and Turmeric powder were higher for nonbranded spice than branded items except Coriander. Here one of the most important point have to notice that some of the value of turmeric powder was unexpectedly too high than other in both the category.
Table 2: Level (mean ± SD) of Pb (in mg/kg) in spices collected from local markets in Dhaka city.
|
Sl. No. |
Category |
Cumin powder |
Red pepper powder |
Turmeric powder |
Coriander powder |
||||
|
1 |
Branded |
1.01 |
0.20 |
0.29 |
0.06 |
0.37 |
0.07 |
0.95 |
0.21 |
|
2 |
2.80 |
0.56 |
<0.27 |
<0.27 |
0.28 |
0.06 |
|||
|
3 |
0.39 |
0.08 |
0.48 |
0.04 |
0.62 |
0.10 |
8.19 |
1.64 |
|
|
4 |
0.58 |
0.12 |
<0.27 |
4.12 |
0.82 |
0.40 |
0.08 |
||
|
5 |
0.41 |
0.08 |
0.31 |
0.06 |
1.18 |
0.24 |
0.79 |
0.19 |
|
|
6 |
0.30 |
0.06 |
<0.27 |
0.46 |
0.09 |
0.53 |
0.11 |
||
|
7 |
<0.27 |
0.30 |
0.06 |
13.83 |
2.77 |
0.36 |
0.07 |
||
|
8 |
<0.27 |
<0.27 |
0.60 |
0.12 |
0.36 |
0.07 |
|||
|
9 |
<0.27 |
<0.27 |
0.05 |
0.46 |
0.09 |
0.35 |
0.07 |
||
|
Average |
0.91 |
0.35 |
2.71 |
1.36 |
|||||
|
Range |
<0.27-2.80 |
<0.27-0.48 |
<0.27-13.83 |
0.28-8.19 |
|||||
|
1 |
Nonbranded |
0.86 |
0.17 |
3.84 |
0.77 |
0.41 |
0.08 |
0.45 |
0.09 |
|
2 |
1.10 |
0.22 |
0.41 |
0.04 |
1.00 |
0.20 |
0.65 |
0.13 |
|
|
3 |
1.51 |
0.30 |
0.61 |
0.12 |
<0.27 |
0.37 |
0.07 |
||
|
4 |
0.84 |
0.17 |
0.76 |
0.15 |
0.61 |
0.12 |
0.39 |
0.08 |
|
|
5 |
5.96 |
1.19 |
1.45 |
0.29 |
37.29 |
7.46 |
0.54 |
0.11 |
|
|
6 |
1.17 |
0.23 |
<0.27 |
16.95 |
3.39 |
0.50 |
0.10 |
||
|
7 |
0.35 |
0.07 |
0.44 |
0.09 |
<0.27 |
0.34 |
0.07 |
||
|
8 |
<0.27 |
0.29 |
0.06 |
0.38 |
0.08 |
0.29 |
0.06 |
||
|
9 |
1.54 |
0.37 |
1.32 |
0.26 |
0.96 |
0.19 |
0.42 |
0.08 |
|
|
Average |
1.67 |
1.67 |
8.23 |
0.44 |
|||||
|
Range |
<0.27-5.56 |
<0.27-3.84 |
<0.27-37.29 |
0.29-0.65 |
|||||
|
Allowable Limit |
10*, 2.5** and 0.3*** |
||||||||
* WHO/FAO Limit as reported Sandanayake, P.T., et al (2017). [31]
** National limit as reported by the Bangladesh Standard (BDS). (2018). [32]
***Codex Alimentarius Commission 1984 as demonstrates Al-Eed, M. A., et al, (2019). [33]
According to the WHO/FAO guidelines, the maximum allowable limit of Pb in common spices is 10 mg/kg. Almost all values were shown beneath this limit except three and out of this 2 for nonbranded spices. Again, the Bangladesh Standard for spice has set the maximum allowable limit to 2.5 mg/kg. According to this, 8 out of 72 samples were crossed over this limit and out of these 4 for branded and 4 for nonbranded items. The maximum allowable limit also mentioned 0.3 ppm reported in many articles according to CODEX. In this regard, most of the sample (approximately 80%) was shown to cross this limit. The level of Pb agreed with that envisioned for all samples and is shown below in Figures 2-5.
Cumin powder showed nearly alike disparity for branded and nonbranded powder. One of the values in both cases was over the limit according to the Bangladesh Standard (BDS).
In the case of red pepper powder, Pb contamination in the nonbranded category was higher than that in the nonbranded category in most cases. The entire sample for branded pepper powder was in a safe area according to BDS.
However, the Pb level in Turmeric powder was shown to be very low and unexpectedly high in only two samples for both categories. However, this upper value is too much unexpected for nonbranded items.
Furthermore, in the case of Coriander powder, the Pb level was very consistent for both categories except for one branded sample that was publicized in the BDS limit. The others were underneath the BDS limit.
Overall, it was observed that the spice samples showed very inconsistent Pb contents. In Bangladesh, only a few spices have been produced, and most of the demand has been fulfilled by exporting spice seed collection methods from different sources. Depending on their source and collection and processing methods, some of the spice samples were unexpectedly contaminated by Pb in an uncontrolled way. Otherwise, the spices available in Dhaka city from different suppliers as branded or nonbranded were shown to be moderately safe zones in the case of the maximum allowable limit of Pb in four common spices for food preparation.
3.2 Association of this study with other countries
The present study also compares the Pb content in spice with other country data for Pb in common spices reported at different times in Asia, Africa, the Middle East and Europe. The Pb levels in spice from different countries are presented in Table 3.
Table 3: The minimum, maximum value and final comments reported in the literature regarding Pb in common spices and medicinal herbs for different countries.
|
Country |
Minimum Value (mg/kg) |
Maximum Value (mg/kg) |
Final Comments |
|
This Study |
<0.27 |
37.6±4.89 |
Not experienced potential risk |
|
Ethiopia [34] |
ND |
- |
Not experienced potential risk |
|
Erithea [35] |
1.58 |
12 |
Consumption controlled or addition controlled |
|
Nigeria [36] |
2.7 |
4.717 |
Not be exposed to any risk |
|
UAE [37] |
1. |
23.52 |
64% sample exceed the safe limit |
|
Srilanka [31] |
0.246 |
0.248 |
No Potential Risk |
|
Bangladesh [28] |
0.32 |
1.09 |
No Potential Risk |
|
Italy [38] |
0.164 |
2.934 |
Need attention considering consumer health |
|
India [39] |
3.3 |
4.59 |
Not be exposed to any risk |
|
Ghana [40, 41] |
0.6 |
115.3 |
Concerned about the lead level. |
|
Egypt [42, 43] |
2.3 |
13.9 |
Not be exposed to any risk |
|
Malaysia [44] |
1.54 |
8.94 |
Not be exposed to any risk |
|
S Korea [45] |
0.039 |
0.972 |
Metal level vary and should be monitor |
|
Pakistan [46][47] |
0.55 |
50 |
Not be exposed to any risk |
|
Iraq [48] |
1.25 |
14.6 |
be exposed to any risk |
|
Libia [49] |
0.96 |
1.05 |
Not be exposed to any risk |
|
Iran [50] |
0.72 |
6.04 |
Investigation needed for health risk Not |
|
Saudi Arab [33][51] |
trace |
14.3 |
Not be exposed to any risk |
|
Polish [52] |
0.14 |
5.43 |
Not be exposed to any risk |
|
Serbia [53] |
0.11 |
0.4 |
Not be exposed to any risk |
|
Turkey [54][55] |
0.001 |
18.0 |
Consideration to saving the field otherwise pose a risk |
|
Romania [56] |
0.04 |
1.28 |
Exceed some sample to EU standard and need constant Monitoring |
|
Poland [57] |
0.005 |
5.68 |
No probability of the appearance of undesirable effect |
The studied Pb level and other countries reporting the level of Pb in common spices were very reasonable. The Pb levels in spice in most of the countries were below 10 mg/kg. In only a few countries some spice Pb levels were as high as those in this study for anonymous reasons.
3.3 Health risk assessment due to Pb exposure to collected spice samples:
3.3.1 Evaluation of Daily Intake and Noncarcinogenic Effects
The study estimated the dietary exposure of Pb through consumption of the most common spices used in the daily food preparation for the adult people who live in the study area in Bangladesh. The estimated daily intakes (EDIs) of Pb were evaluated according to the average concentration of each sample and the respective consumption rate [28].
|
Type |
Spice |
EDI |
THQ |
CR |
TCR |
|
Branded |
Cumin Powder |
0.046 |
0.011 |
3.89E-07 |
3.13E-06 |
|
Red Pepper Powder |
0.052 |
0.013 |
4.40E-07 |
||
|
Turmeric Powder |
0.20 |
0.051 |
1.72E-06 |
||
|
Coriander Powder |
0.068 |
0.017 |
5.76E-07 |
||
|
Nonbranded |
Cumin Powder |
0.083 |
0.021 |
7.08E-07 |
8.25E-06 |
|
Red Pepper Powder |
0.25 |
0.063 |
2.12E-06 |
||
|
Turmeric Powder |
0.62 |
0.15 |
5.25E-06 |
||
|
Coriander Powder |
0.02 |
0.0051 |
1.73E-07 |
It was observed that Pb was consumed most through turmeric powder in both the category and lowest for cumin powder in the branded category and coriander powder for the nonbranded category. The total daily intake of the studied metal through the consumption of different spices was higher than the maximum tolerable intake (MTDI) only in Red Pepper and Turmeric Powder for Nonbranded items (0.21 g) [16], indicating that these spices might pose a risk to consumers in the study area of Bangladesh. Since the EDI of the studied metals was higher than the MTDI, periodic surveillance will be necessary to set up regulatory norms for the dietary intake of spices, especially for nonbranded items. Because Bangladeshi people are taking a high amount of spice compared to other countries, most of the people are using the studied spice every day in a very high amount for food preparation. Reported that Bangladeshi people average estimated daily intake approximately 66 g of spices [16], but the average daily intake of common spices per person has been estimated as 4.0 g in the USA, 0.5 g in Europe and 1.0 g in New Zealand and 14.7 g in South Asia [34].
The noncancer risk was estimated by associating an exposure level over a definite time period with a reference amount resulting for an analogous exposure period. The noncancer risk has been described by a hazard quotient (HQ). The target hazard quotient (THQ) of Pb consumption by average Bangladeshi adults was calculated using equation no (3), and the level of THQ is presented in Table 3. The THQ values of lead were less than 1, which suggests that people would be totally free from noncancer risk if they consumed heavy metals through the consumption of the studied spices.
3.3.2 Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risk Effect (CR)
The CR of Pb in the case of powdered spice consumption also summed up to give the total CR of single spices. The CR values of the potential risk of Pb were calculated using equation (4). The value of Pb due to exposure from the consumption of the four selected spices was below 10-6. Generally, CR values lower than 10-6 are considered negligible. Above 10-4 are considered to be unacceptable, and values between 10-6 and 10-4 are considered to be the acceptable range (USEPA1989, 2010). By comparing the values of different literature studies, the present study reveals that the CR for toxic elements was negligible. Therefore, the risk of cancer due to exposure to lead through consumption of the four selected spices was insignificant.
The level of potentially toxic heavy metals (Pb) was studied in 72 different branded and nonbranded spice samples collected from the center of the country Dhaka city to compare and assess health implications. The four most common and frequently used spices were selected in this case. The level of lead in the studied spices was very trace to a very high range. This range has been evaluated and compared with more than 20 countries to determine the level of contamination. The Lead level in the sense of branded and nonbranded categories of spices focused mainly here. Additionally, the estimated daily dietary intake, THQ and carcinogenic risk (CR) were also analysed to evaluate the human health risk assessment. The level of lead in most of the spice items (69 out of 72) was within the permissible limit (2.5 mg/kg) according to BDS. The range of lead in this study was < 0.27 to 37.29 mg/kg (± 4.79), which was trace to 115.3 mg/kg in other countries. The most important aspect was that the Pb level in powder spices followed an inconsistent pattern, which might depend on the source. In addition, the estimated daily intake of lead in the studied spice was under the limit. The THQ was below the risk level and CR regarding lead out of danger for studied spices. The contamination level of lead in powdered spices at such a level was not harmful until now considering human health risk. Continuous monitoring and assessment of spice is necessary to control the contamination of toxic metals in spices.
[1] Singh S, Uddin M, Khan MMA et al., (2022) Therapeutic Properties Of Capsaicin: A Medicinally Important Bio-Active Constituent Of Chilli Pepper. Asian J Pharm Clin Res 15(7): 47-58, https://doi.org/10.22159/ajpcr.2022.v15i7.44405
[2] Sahoo D, Dalei J, Rukmini M, Ray R, (2015) Comparative Analysis of Medicinal Properties of Different Condiments Daily Used in Indian Food. Am. J. Pharm Tech Res. 5(1): 587-604
[3] Karahan F, Ozyigit II, Saracoglu IA et al (2020) Heavy Metal Levels and Mineral Nutrient Status in Different Parts of Various Medicinal Plants Collected from Eastern Mediterranean Region of Turkey. Biological Trace Element Research 197:316–329, https://doi.org/10.1007/s12011-019-01974-2
[4] Natesh J, Mondal P et al (2021) Culinary spice bioactives as potential therapeutics against SARS-CoV-2: Computational investigation. Computers in Biology and Medicine 128: 104102, DOI: 10.1016/j.compbiomed.2020.104102
[5] Gunasekar M, Geemon K, Mariwala SJ, (2012) Health benefits of bioactive molecules from spices and aromatic plants. Indian Soc. Spices. 21(2): 87–101.
[6] Sengupta S, Bhattacharyya D, et al. (2021) Potential Immunomodulatory, Properties of Biologically Active Components of Spices Against SARS-CoV-2 and Pan b-Coronaviruses. Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology 1: 1-12, https://doi.org/10.3389/fcimb.2021.729622
[7] Praditya D, Kirchhoff L, Brüning J, Rachmawati H., Steinmann J, Steinmann E, (2019) Anti-infective properties of the golden spice curcumin. Front. Microbiol. 10:912, doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2019.00912
[8] Reeta V, Kalia S et al, (2022) Turmeric: A review of its’ effects on human health. Journal of Medicinal Plants Studies 10(4): 61-63
[9] Rout J, Swain BC, Tripathy U, (2020) In silico investigation of spice molecules as potent inhibitor of SARS-CoV-2. J. Biomol. Struct. Dyn. 1–15, https://doi.org/10.1080/07391102.2020.1819879.
[10] Elsayed Y, Khan NA, (2020) Immunity-boosting spices and the novel coronavirus, ACS Chem. Neurosci. 11 (12): 1696–1698, https://doi.org/10.1021/acschemneuro.0c00239.
[11] Kunnumakkara AB, Sailo BL, Banik K, (2018) Chronic diseases, inflammation, and spices: how are theymlinked? J. Transl. Med. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12967-018-1381-2.
[12] Guldiken B, Ozkan G, Catalkaya G, et al. (2018) Phytochemicals of herbs and spices: health versus toxicological effects, Food Chem. Toxicol. 119: 37–49,
[13] Gidwani B, Bhattacharya R, Shukla SS and Pandey RK, (2022) Indian spices: past, present and future challenges as the engine for bio-enhancement of drugs: impact of COVID-19. J Sci Food Agric; 102(8): 3065–3077, https://doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.11771
[14] Asiminicesei DM, Vasilachi IC, Gavrilescu M, (2020) Heavy Metal Contamination of Medicinal Plants and Potential Implications on Human Health. Revista de Chimie, 71 (7): 16-36
[15] Gavrilescu M, (2009) Behaviour of persistent pollutants and risks associated with their presence in the environment - integrated studies, Environ Eng. Manag. J, 8(6): 1517-1531. DOI:10.30638/eemj.2009.221
[16] Hlihor RM, Apostol LC, Smaranda C, et al (2009) Bioavailability Processes for Contaminants in Soils and Their Use in Risk Assessment. Environ Eng. Manag. J, 8(5): 1199-1206.
[17] Zivkovik J, Razic S, Arsenijevik J, Maksimovik Z, (2012) Heavy metals contents in Veronica species and soil from mountain area in Serbia, J. Serb. Chem. Soc., 77(7): 959-970. https://doi.org/10.2298/JSC111225221Z
[18] Zheng S, Wang Q, Yuany Sun W, (2020) Human health risk assessment of heavy metals in soil and food crops in the Pearl River Delta urban agglomeration of China. Food Chem., 316, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2020.126213.
[19] Kohzadi S, Shahmoradi B, Ghaderi E, Loqmani H, Maleki A, (2018) Concentration, source, and potential human health risk of heavy metals in the commonly consumed medicinal plants. Biol. Trace Elem. Res.,. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12011-018-1357-3
[20] Babu G, Islam SB Md. Khan A, (2022) A review on the genetic polymorphisms and susceptibility of cancer patients in Bangladesh. Molecular Biology Reports 49(7):6725–6739.
doi: 10.1007/s11033-022-07282-8.
[21] Asiminicesei DM, Hlihor RM, (2020) Medicinal plants: Linking Herbs Contamination with Human Health Risks. The 8th IEEE International Conference on E-Health and Bioengineering - EHB 2020 Grigore T. Popa University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Web Conference, Romania, October 29-30,
[22] Collin S, Baskar A, (2022) Bioaccumulation of lead (Pb) and its effects in plants: A review. Journal of Hazardous Materials Letters, 3: 100064 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hazl.2022.100064
[23] Zeng LS, Liao M, Chen CL, Huang CY, (2007) Effects of lead contamination on soil enzymatic activities, microbial biomass, and rice physiological indices in soil–lead–rice (Oryza sativa L.) system. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. 67 (1): 67–74. DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2006.05.001
[24] Naaz NS, Tasnim F. (2008) Marketing of spice powder in Dhaka City: A case study on Square Consumer Product Ltd. DIU Journal of Business and Economics 3(2):1-10
[25] Islam N, Ullah GMS, (2010) Factors affecting consumers’ preferences on fast food items in Bangladesh. The Journal of Applied Business Research 26(4):131-146. https://doi.org/10.19030/jabr.v26i4.313
[26] Noor T, Begum M, Ahmed MR and Hossain MI, (2017) Consumers’ Preference and Acceptance of Branded Spice Powder in Sadar Upazila of Mymensingh District in Bangladesh, Asian Journal of Agricultural Extension, Economics & Sociology 19(4): 1-13
[27] Sattar S, Das PC, Hossain MS, Sarower K, Uddin MB, (2019) Study on Consumer Perception towards Quality of Spices Powder Available in Bangladesh. Open Journal of Safety Science and Technology 9: 137-144 DOI: 10.4236/ojsst.2019.94009
[28] Rahman M, Islam MA, Khan RA, (2018) Characterization of chemical elements in common spices of Bangladesh for dietary intake and possible health risk assessment by INAA and AAS techniques. Journal of Radioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry. DOI: 10.1007/s10967-018-6222-5
[29] Meseret M, Ketema G, Kassahun H, (2020) Health Risk Assessment and Determination of Some Heavy Metals in Commonly Consumed Traditional Herbal Preparations in Northeast Ethiopia. Hindawi Journal of Chemistry, 1- 7, https://doi.org/10.1155/2020/8883837
[30] Yaradua AI, Alhassan AJ, et al (2020) Human Health Risk Assessment of Heavy Metals in Onion Bulbs Cultivated in Katsina State, North West Nigeria. Archives of Current Research International, 20(2): 30-39 https://doi.org/10.9734/acri/2020/v20i230175
[31] Sandanayake PT, Wickramasinghe I, Rajanayake RMGB, Bamunuarachchiet A, (2017) Analysis of Metal Content in Black Pepper Powder Available In The Sri Lankan Market. International Journal Of Engineering Sciences & Research Technology, 6(10): 560, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.1002640
[32] BDS. 991 (2001).
[33] Al-Eed MA, Assubaie FN, El-Garawany MM et al, Determination of Heavy Metal levels in Common Spices. Dept. of Chemistry & Botany, College of Agricultural & Food Sciences King Faisal University, Saudi Arabi.
[34] Siruguri V. and Bhat RV, (2015) Assessing intake of spices by pattern of spice use, frequency of consumption and portion size of spices consumed from routinely prepared dishes in southern India. Nutrition Journal 14: 7 https://doi.org/10.1186/1475-2891-14-7
[35] Russom E, Kflel G, Asgedom G et al, (2019) Heavy Metals Content of Spices Available on the Market of Asmara, Eritrea. European Journal of Nutrition & Food Safety, 11(3): 156-163
[36] Gaya U, Ikechukwu S, (2016) Heavy metal contamination of selected spices obtained from Nigeria. J. Appl. Sci. Environ. Manage. 20 (3): 681-688. DOI: 10.4314/jasem.v20i3.23
[37] Dghaim R, Khatib SA, Rasool H, Khan MA et al, (2015) Determination of Heavy Metals Concentration in Traditional Herbs Commonly Consumed in the United Arab Emirates. Journal of Environmental and Public Health 973878, https://doi.org/10.1155/2015/973878
[38] Bua DG, Annuario G, Albergamo A et al, Heavy metals in aromatic spices by inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry. Food Additives & Contaminants: Part B, 9(3), 210-216, DOI: 10.1080/19393210.2016.1175516
[39] Mazumdar I, Goswami K, (2014) Lead: A Silent Menace in Household Spices of India? International Journal of Current Medical and Applied Sciences, 5(1): 8-10
[40] Darko B, Ayim I, Voegborlo RB, (2014) Heavy metal content in mixed and unmixed seasonings on the Ghanaian market. African Journal of Food Science 8(1): 14-19, DOI: 10.5897/AJFS2013.1107
[41] Nkansah MA, Amoako CO, et al (2010) Heavy metal content of some common spices available in markets in the Kumasi metropolis of Ghana. Am. J. Sci. Ind. Res., 1(2): 158-163, DOI:10.5251/ajsir.2010.1.2.158.163
[42] Abou-Arab AAK, Donia MAA, (2000) Heavy Metals in Egyptian Spices and Medicinal Plants and the Effect of Processing on Their Levels. J. Agric. Food Chem 48(6): 2300–2304, DOI: 10.1021/jf990508p
[43] Abd El-Rahman MAM (2019) Microbiological Quality and Heavy Metals Content of some Spices and Herbs Kinds. J. Food and Dairy Sci., Mansoura Univ. 10 (7): 237- 241
[44] Nordin N, Selamat J, (2013) Heavy metals in spices and herbs from wholesale markets in Malaysia. Food Additives & Contaminants: Part B, 6(1): 36-41, https://doi.org/10.1080/19393210.2012.721140
[45] Shim J, Cho T, Leem D, et al, (2019) Heavy metals in spices commonly consumed in Republic of Korea. Food Additives & Contaminants: Part B,12(1): 52-58, https://doi.org/10.1080/19393210.2018.1546772
[46] Akhtar S, Riaza M, Naeem I, et al, (2020) Risk assessment of aflatoxins and selected heavy metals through intake of branded and non-branded spices collected from the markets of Multan city of Pakistan. Food Control 112: 107132, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodcont.2020.107132
[47] Baig JA, Bhatti S, Kazi TG, Afridi HI, (2019) Evaluation of Arsenic, Cadmium, Nickel and Lead in Common Spices in Pakistan. Biological Trace Element Research 187:586–595, https://doi.org/10.1007/s12011-018-1400-4
[48] Jawad I, (2016) Determination of Heavy Metals in Spices and Medical Herbs Available on the Iraq Market. Advances in Environmental Biology 10(1): 66-69
[49] Ziyaina M, Rajab A, Alkhweldi K, et al (2014) Lead and Cadmium residue determination in spices available in Tripoli City markets (Libya). African Journal of Biochemistry Research 8(7): 137-140. https://doi.org/10.5897/AJBR2014.0766
[50] Gilania BB, Alamotib MP, (2017) Evaluating of Heavy Metal Contaminations in the Most Applicable Food Spices and Flavors in Hamedan, Iran. Arch Hyg Sci. 6(3): 268-275.
[51] Seddigi ZS, Kandhro GA et al, (2013) Assessment of metal contents in spices and herbs from Saudi Arabia. Toxicology and Industrial Health, 32(2): 1-10, DOI: 10.1177/0748233713500822
[52] Krejpcio Z, Król E, Sionkowski S, (2007) Evaluation of Heavy Metals Contents in Spices and Herbs Available on the Polish Market Polish. J. of Environ. Stud. 16(1): 97-100
[53] Blagojević SM, Stevan BN, Nataša PD et al, (2013) Quality And Safety Of Some Commercial Spices Brands, Acta Periodica Technologica 44: 1-9, https://doi.org/10.2298/APT1344001B
[54] Divrikli U, Horzum N, Soylak M, Elci L et al. (2006) Trace heavy metal contents of some spices and herbal plants from western Anatolia, Turkey. International Journal of Food Science anf Technology, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2005.01140.x.
[55] Tokalıoğlu Ş, Çiçek B et al, (2018) Multivariate Statistical Analysis of Data and ICP-MS Determination of Heavy Metals in Different Brands of Spices Consumed in Kayseri, Turkey. Food Analytical Methods 11(9): 2407–2418.
[56] Marinescu E, Elisei AM et al (2020), Assessment Of Heavy Metals Content In Some Medicinal Plants And Spices Commonly Used In Romania. Farmacia, 68(6): 1099-1105, https://doi.org/10.31925/farmacia.2020.6.18
[57] Kowalska G, (2021), The Safety Assessment of Toxic Metals in Commonly Used Herbs, Spices, Tea, and Coffee in Poland. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 18(11): 5779, https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18115779
[58] Bhathal SK, Kaur H, Bains K & Mahal AK et al, (2020) Assessing intake and consumption level of spices among urban and rural households of Ludhiana district of Punjab, India. Nutritional Journal 19: 121, https://doi.org/10.1186/s12937-020-00639-4
Funding
The authors declare that no funds, grants, or other support were received during the preparation of this manuscript.
Competing Interests
The authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose.
Author Contributions
All authors contributed to the study conception and design. Material preparation was done by Azizul Maksud and Lutfun Nahar Lufta, data collection and analysis were performed by Shahidur Rahman Khan. The first draft of the manuscript was written by M. Nur E Alam and all authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Data Availability
The datasets generated during analyzed/during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.
Ethics approval
This study was performed in line with continuous monitoring program of analytical chemistry laboratory and did not require ethical approval
Consent to participate
Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.
Consent to publish
All authors were informed to publish the work.
Table 1 not available with this version.