Rural Populations of Alagoinhas and Herpetofauna: Knowledge, Uses and Interactions


 Background: Brazil has one of the greatest diversity of species of herpetofauna in the world. Associated with this diversity of species, rural communities in Brazil have developed a vast knowledge about these animals. Methods: The present research aimed to characterize the knowledge and influence of the socioeconomic variables of the population in the interaction between humans and herpetofauna of the rural area of the municipality of Alagoinhas. The free list method and semistructured questionnaire was used to list the species of the herpetofauna known by the informants. Results: A total amount of 39 species of amphibians and reptiles was cited by the informants. These interact with residents in the categories of food use, magical-religious purposes, medicine, pets and in conflicting relationships. Conclusion: Regarding the results of socioeconomic variables influencing knowledge, time of residence, gender, the location of the community, education level, explained the knowledge associated with the reptiles. For amphibians, time of residence and gender explained the knowledge associated.


Introduction
These communities emerged from the dismemberment of large farms of the 19th century, or as a result of the occupation of travelers test areas the edge of streams [24 -27] Alagoinhas, 2020. Thus, during the construction of this municipality, there was a mixture of several socio-ecological systems from different locations in Brazil, providing the formation of a rich cultural system associated with local biological diversity.
The sampling design was probabilistic, in which all respondents had the same possibility of being chosen, and the inclusion criterion was de ned with all residents who deal with amphibians and reptiles for different purposes. The According to Resolution 466/2012 of the Ministry of Health, the Free and Informed Consent Term -TCLE was handed to the interviewees to read, so they could understand the research objectives. The data were obtained and con dentiality of the informants' identity was guaranteed. During the data analysis, the interview number corresponded to the code of each informant.
Semi-structured interviews contributed to the collection of ethnobiological data in the eld. The interviews had objective and subjective questions, which involved several questions and statements about sociodemographic aspects, knowledge, uses, interactions related to reptiles and amphibians, carried out individually [28], as well as the use of a digital recorders, when allowed. Vernacular names of species were recorded as quoted during the interviews. Zoological material was identi ed with the aid of specialists, through examination of voucher specimens donated by the interviewees or purchased at the surveyed markets, and through photographs taken during interviews of the animal species or their parts. Whenever necessary, these procedures were supplemented by checking vernacular names provided by informants against the scienti c names, with the aid of taxonomists familiar with the study areas. All the questionnaires and as photographs of the specimens described, were deposited in the Núcleo de Estudos de Conservação da Caatinga -UNIVASF.
Socioeconomic information included gender, age, religion, time of residence in the community, education level, professional activity and income. About the knowledge related to the fauna, the informants answered the following questions: What are they? What did they feel when they saw a certain animal? Are these used for any purpose? If they knew any beliefs and if they were important to humans and to nature.
Finally, after the categorization of uses, a free list of animals was built for each of the cultural domains mentioned (categories of uses or interactions). In addition to the free list, which, according to [28] presents some obstacles, the techniques of non-speci c induction (Nonspeci c prompting), new reading (Reading back) and semantic suggestion (Semantic Cues) were applied. Both procedures enhance studies involving free lists.

Categorization of types of interaction between human beings and herpetofauna
The relationship between people and herpetofauna in the studied areas was characterized by listing the interaction regarding the relationships and uses of the specimens cited with the interviewees, among the following categories: food, magical-religious purposes, medicine, pet and con icting relationships [20]. Additionally, after the characterization, it was determined which categories mentioned have the greatest cultural importance within the studied parcels, calculating the Informant Consensus Factor -ICF [29] Where: ICF = Informant consensus factor; nar = sum of interactions recorded by all informants in a category; na = number of species indicated in the category. A value close to zero indicates a high variation in the indication of interactions with the herpetofauna, indicating, for example, that the selection of animals is random, or the nonsharing of information. The high values (close to 1) suggest a high intracultural consensus, both for the species selection criteria, if any, and for the dissemination of information.
Cultural importance of the species The salience index was adopted as a parameter for calculating the cultural importance of the species. This is based on the number of times the species has been cited, establishing, from the free list, an order of cultural importance for known animals [28]. The salience index was calculated for each of the use categories (cultural domains). Additionally, the free lists obtained were compared using the ANTHROPAC 4.x software for Windows [30] to determine the salience of the species with the greatest cultural importance for the studied parcels.
In uence of socioeconomic variables on knowledge, uses and relationships between humans and herpetofauna A generalized linear model (GLM) was performed using the Poisson distribution to verify whether there is a relationship between socioeconomic variables (gender, community, time of residence in the community, religion, education level, income and location of the community in relation to the urban center) with three variables related to the knowledge of herpetofauna species by the informants. It was assumed that knowledge is associated with the total number of species cited for each dependent variable. Thus, the variables were: general knowledge of herpetofauna, for food purposes and about species that present con icting relations. We emphasize that the analyzes carried out on the knowledge and number of species of amphibians and reptiles, as well as the use and the relations of con icts were analyzed separately. For this analysis the variables were organized as follows: gender (female and male); education (illiterate, elementary and high school); location of the community in relation to the urban center (parcel 1 [5 to 10 km], parcel 2 [ 10 to 20 km] and parcel 3 [over 20 km]); religion (atheist, catholic, evangelical and African origin); and income (without minimum wage = 1, up to one minimum wage = 2, between one and two minimum wages = 3). The time of residence in years was included in the analysis according to what had been informed by the interviewee. Proceeded with the simpli cation of the variables that were not considered signi cant for the model (p> 0.05), as well as veri cation of the residuals, used were the function "rdiagnostic" of the package MASS. For all analyzes, the software R 3.6.1 [31] was used.

Results
A total of 130 interviews were carried out in the three surveyed parcels in the municipality of Alagoinhas (67 women and 63 men) with people aged between 14 and 90 years. Table 1 shows the socioeconomic results along the three parcels.
The informants cited 39 popular names of animals, of which three were amphibians and 36 reptiles ( Table 2).
The species cited interact with residents in the categories of food use (14 animals), magical-religious purposes (2), medicine (14), pets (1) and in con icting relationships (32) ( Table 3). Considering the ve categories of use and interaction (food, magical-religious purposes, medicine, pets and con icting relationships), the 39 popular names of animals were mentioned 1,340 times in different uses (Table 3). Analyzing the categories, a con icting relationship was the most cited by the informants (752 citations) (Table 03). However, according to the Informant's Consensus Factor, the Pet category use obtained the highest ICF (ICF = 1) (Table 03).
Regarding the cultural importance of the species by category of use, the category of con icting relationships had Crotalus durissus, Micrurus ibiboca and Philodryas olfersi with the highest salience rates. In the food uses category Salvator merianae, Leptodactylus sp. and Boa constrictor were the most culturally important for the informants. For the medicinal use category, Rhinela jimi, C. durissus and S. merianae. In the other categories, the salience was not calculated, since they presented few species (magical-religious purposes with two species, and pets with one specie).
Regarding the results of socioeconomic variables in uencing knowledge (see Table 4), it was observed that the total knowledge about reptiles was explained by the time of residence and gender; the knowledge about reptiles used for food was in uenced by the location of the community in relation to the urban center; the knowledge about reptile species with con icting relationships was explained by the time of residence, gender and education level .
For amphibians, it was observed that the variables of food species and total knowledge of species was not explained by any socioeconomic variable. However, the knowledge about amphibian species with con icting relationships was explained by time of residence and gender.

Discussion
In the area studied, the rural populations have extensive knowledge about species of the local herpetofauna.
Possibly, the use of land for planting allows contact with biodiversity, including several animals of the local herpetofauna, allowing the development of traditional practices with species of amphibians and reptiles [4,32]. The analysis of the data showed that the informants have agriculture as their main work activity. The rural area of Alagoinhas has a small-scale agricultural plantation, which is used for families' subsistence, as well as contributing to the local supply (Personal observation).
The number of amphibian species cited in the present study was lower than other studies [33][34][35]. For reptiles, the number of species found was higher than other studies conducted, i.e. Mendonça et al. [14], Rojas et al. [33] and Leyte-Manrique et al. [34]. The variation in the richness of fauna species used in different communities is an expected result, as this knowledge can vary depending on local environmental factors (greater or lesser availability, habitat reduction) and local cultural factors (speci c knowledge of a speci c human group).
Analyzing the categories of use and interaction cited by the informants, amphibians and reptiles t into biophilic and biophobic relationships. Thus, corroborate the theory of biophilia and biophobia proposed by Wilson [36]. In this proposal, biophilia is related to the a nity that human beings have with biodiversity, while biophobia proposes the existence of fear and aversion.
According to the results, the IFC values of the categories cited show that the informants knowledge is well disseminated within communities. Thus, it is likely that the species selection criteria for these purposes is highly widespread and speci c within the cultural context of the sampled communities. The category magical-religious purposes obtained the least number of citations (27). Several studies show that species of herpetofauna are used for magical-religious purposes [37][38][39].
Regarding the pets category, a total of 43 citations and only one specie (Chelonoidis carbonaria) were observed. The habit of keeping reptiles as a pet is widely disseminated throughout the world . Alves et al. [20] reviewed human habits in Brazil concerning reptiles and highlighted that chelonians of the genus Chelonoidis are the most sold and kept as pets by the population. Apparently, the fact that they are docile and easy to capture, in addition to not requiring much care, favors the demand for these animals for breeding for pet purposes.
The category of use as medicine presented a total of 125 citations. The knowledge about the use of animals in medicinal practices cited by the rural population of Alagoinhas, corroborates with the ndings of numerous researches in Brazil and around the world [33,[40][41][42][43][44], rea rming the medicinal importance of herpetofauna for human communities. Apparently, according to the informants, the communities have a vast medicinal knowledge about reptiles and amphibians, but the use is not frequent. This can probably be attributed to the improvement in public health services. However, considering the number of species and uses cited for the medicinal category (, it is evident that zootherapics have not lost the cultural and symbolic value of practices for these human cultures. For the present study, the category of food use was the second most cited by the informants (393 citations). The high number of citations re ects the importance of the fauna for nutritional purposes, showing that the interaction of man with wild animals for food purposes is common in rural and urban areas [45]. Among the species of greatest cultural importance, according to the salience index, Salvator merianae was the animal with the highest number of indications for food use. The meat of this specie is very much appreciated because, according to the informants, it is tastes like chicken. This has also been recorded by other studies [46][47][48].
Among the ve categories of use and interaction, the category of con icting relationships is the one with the highest number of species cited by the informants (n = 32) and the highest number of citations (755). The informants demonstrated to have beliefs and de nitions that enhance negative perceptions about species of amphibians and reptiles (especially with snakes), favoring con icting relationships. In this way, human judgments regarding animals can go to extremes, ranging from love to hate and, eventually, varying due to the local culture and the connection of each individual with the animal throughout life [20,49]. In view of the above, the con icting relationships may have favored the construction of an extensive knowledge about reptiles and amphibians throughout the evolutionary history of humans [15,16,21,[50][51][52].
Analyzing the salience results for the categories of food, medicine and con icting relationships, we observed that S. merianae has high cultural importance for the informants who use it for nutritional and medical purposes and low importance for con icting relationships. Probably, the high utilitarian aspect of this species in uences low con icting relationships for the sampled human communities. This nding reinforces the theory of biophilia and biophobia, showing how local contexts can lead to the development of positive and negative perceptions of the same species [53,54].
Considering the importance of fauna to human societies, understanding how socioeconomic factors (gender, income, age, education, religion) in uence the construction of knowledge associated with animals can support research that favors the maintenance of these socio-ecological systems . Thus, the present study brings elements to a discussion about how socioeconomic variables can in uence the knowledge about herpetofauna.
In the analysis of the relationship of socioeconomic variables with the total knowledge of reptiles, residence time and gender signi cantly in uenced the number of known reptile species. The variable time of residence can be explained as follows: the longer the time of interaction, the longer the time to build knowledge about a given resource and this knowledge is transmitted between local generations [55]. Thus, the longer residence time directly in uences the amount of experience with reptile species, enabling the construction and sedimentation of knowledge about more animals.
Regarding to the role of gender in explaining the knowledge of reptiles, Alambert [56] points out that, throughout the evolution of humans, the male gender was responsible for hunting, favoring a closer relationship between men and fauna. Another point is related to the division of labor, in which most societies were built on hierarchical models centered on the role of men, with a clear division of labor, in which men were responsible for hunting and women for domestic activities; thus, this function attributed to man, enabled a greater contact with animals [56].
Regarding food use, the positioning of the community in relation to the urban center of Alagoinhas in uenced the knowledge about reptiles used for this purpose. Communities located in parcel 2 know more species (12 species, 90 indications), while communities located in parcel 3 know fewer species (6 species, 130 indications) used for food purposes. It is possible that communities located in parcel 3 have socioenvironmental conditions that favor a greater dissemination of knowledge about the use of reptile species as food. Within this parcel, the communities are located on the edge of a river and maintain a riparian forest in regeneration (Personal observation). Thus, it is likely that these ecological characteristics have favored the knowledge and use of animal species within this parcel [47].
The con icting relationships with reptiles were explained by time of residence (the longer the time the greater number of species known), gender (men know less species) and education level (illiterate people know more species). The time of residence can explain the knowledge of species with con icting relationships as follows: the longer the contact time with the environment, the greater the experiences that can be generated with the reptiles, resulting in the knowledge of more species. Thus, it is possible that the longer the residence time in the locality, the greater the possibility of con icting experiences with the herpetofauna (possible attacks by these animals). Consequently, residence time favors the construction of associated knowledge about reptiles that could potentially cause some risk to human populations.
Regarding the role of gender in con icting relationships, the division of labor cited by Alambert [56] may have contributed to the number of species with con icting relationships. As noted in the present study, men know more species of reptiles. Kellert et al. [53] claim that human beings who hunt are more knowledgeable about wild animals and tend to have more favorable attitudes towards certain groups of animals. In this sense, women are in contact with fewer species of reptiles, consequently, they tend to know less and develop more con icting relationships with this group.
The effect of schooling on the number of species with con icting relationships can be explained as follows: it is likely that the lack of school education ampli es the construction of cognitive aspects related to the fear of reptiles. People with less education may have more negative relationships with the herpetofauna, as was veri ed in our study and by other authors [1,57,58]. However, Liordos et al. [51] studying the conservation of snakes found that the educational level was not correlated to the perception of snakes, even though people with higher education were more oriented to conservation compared to people with lower school levels. Thus, more studies are needed to understand schooling as a modulator of con ict relations.
The analysis with amphibians showed that only con icting relationships are in uenced by socioeconomic variables. time of residence and gender. The knowledge about amphibian species with con icting relationships was negatively in uenced by the time of residence, in which, the shorter the time of residence in the community, the greater the knowledge of species. In this case, it is expected that the relationship would be positive, so that the longer residence time would in uence a greater number of species with con icting relationships. It is possible that the low citation of amphibian species (three) has in uenced the results of this analysis, considering that the species mentioned here have many con icting relationships presented in other studies [21,59,60].
Another point to be addressed is that it is possible that informants with shorter residence times in the community have little contact with amphibian species, as they would be exercising other professions and, consequently, would have less general knowledge about these animals. This favors the development of more con icting relationships as well as different perceptions [55], contrasting with residents who have lived in the community for longer.
Regarding the gender, it was observed that men know less species with con ict relations. Roskaft et al. [61] found that when compared to males, females express more negative attitudes towards animals, which according to the authors is not only due to their own safety, but also for the well-being of their children. Another point may be related to the division of labor, pointed out by Alambert [56], in which the greater male contact with nature can favor a greater knowledge about amphibian species, consequently reducing the number of species that have con icts. The aesthetics of animals is also pointed out as a factor in uencing the preference that men and women have for certain animals, in which an animal group can be favored for females and disadvantaged for males, and vice versa [52]. Thus, in the present study, it is possible that amphibian aesthetics are a determinant for men to have con icting relationships with fewer amphibian species than women.

FINAL CONSIDERATIONS
The rural communities in the municipality of Alagoinhas know an expressive number of species of amphibians and reptiles that play positive (from a utilitarian perspective) and negative (con icting relationships) roles within the sampled socio-ecological system. The knowledge recorded here is well disseminated within the sampled communities. Thus, our data show that even in rural environments altered by agriculture, and close to urban centers, traditional knowledge about wild fauna remains and recording it through scienti c studies is extremely important.
Aspects related to the evolutionary history of humans, such as biophilia and biophobia relationships, and socioeconomic aspects, as observed in the present study, can in uence knowledge and perception of herpetofauna. The understanding of the aspects related to the construction of this knowledge contributes to the understanding between the evolution of the relationship between humans and herpetofauna, to favor the direction of conservation practices of the fauna involved and the maintenance of the traditional knowledge produced.
In short, this study paves the way for further research to discuss the effect of con icting relationships as modulators of knowledge (considering the number of species cited for these purposes in this study). Thus, it makes it possible to understand how humans "choose" certain animals to love or hate and what are the consequences of this intriguing emotional relationship for the evolution of socio-ecological systems.

Declarations
FLC carried out the eld study, analyzed the data, and drafted the manuscript. EMFLN, EMCN, and FFS helped in data analysis, interpretation, and preparation/correction of the nal draft.

Funding
This work was supported by the master's scholarship granted by the Foundation for the Support of Research in the State of Bahia -Fapesb.

Availability of data and materials
All data have already been included in the manuscript. We are willing to share the data generated and analyzed during the current study.
Ethics approval and consent to participate

Consent for publication
The present paper does not contain any individual person's data; therefore, this section is not applicable to our study.

Con ict of interest
The authors declare that they have no con ict of interest