Microclimate Related Ecosystem Services Provided by Street Trees in the Urban Areas: A Case Study of Kayseri

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-2120535/v1

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Microclimate Related Ecosystem Services Provided by Street Trees in the Urban Areas: A Case Study of Kayseri

https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-2120535/v1

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With rapidly increasing urbanization, natural ecosystems are disappearing and the environmental quality of cities is deteriorating. Trees, known as function of ecosystem, are an important component of urban green infrastructure systems. Trees have an important function in reducing the environmental problems caused by urbanization in urban areas. Considered as an element of urban design, trees have come to the fore in recent years with a series of tangible and intangible benefits to the citizens and the urban ecosystem. Climatic research also has an important place among regulatory ecosystem services. In the light of this information, the microclimatic contribution of avenue trees needed to be determined within the framework of regulatory ecosystem services. Climatic simulations were carried out with ENVI-met software on six different main arterial roads that constitute the main transportation network of Kayseri, and the climate regulatory effect of avenue trees was revealed at street scale. As a result of the study, it was observed that the average temperature was 3⁰°C, the average radiation temperature was 15^°C, the wind speed was 0.5m/s, and the humidity increased by 10% on average on the roads with high vegetation.

ENVI-met

Kayseri

Ecosystem Services

Urban Heat Islands

Avenue Trees

Structural and infrastructure systems, which increase with the effect of urbanization, cause a decrease in natural resources, increase the pressure on urban ecosystems (Mentens et al., 2006) and deteriorate the environmental quality of cities (Folke et al., 1997; Gregg et al., 2003; Alberti and Marzluff, 2004; Roy et al., 2012). Reducing the harmful effects of urbanization and harmonizing human-environment interactions is possible with a comprehensive planning approach (Andersson, 2006). This approach is urban green infrastructure systems (Wilker et al., 2016), which offers solution alternatives to ecological, social and environmental problems within the scope of sustainable area use, and healthy-livable cities are cities with green infrastructure systems (Mell, 2009).

Green infrastructures are areas that support sustainable life and appropriate urban development in and around urban areas and provide ecological, economic and social benefits (TCPA, 2004). These areas are areas that address ecological corridors, core areas, and the landscape system they are connected to in a holistic way; protect and develop plant and animal habitats, and support urban life in terms of ecosystems (Benedict and McMahon, 2002). In addition, these areas are defined as a green area network formed by interconnected natural, semi-natural and cultural areas that preserve ecosystem values and functions (Benedict and McMahon, 2002; European Commission, 2013). This network includes natural areas such as forests, wetlands, protected areas, wildlife areas, habitats hosting rare and endemic species, and cultural components such as parks, urban forests, playgrounds, single housing and public gardens, sports areas, cemeteries, vegetated roads, vertical gardens (Benedict and McMahon, 2006, Kaplan 2012, Selim 2015).

1.1. Approach of urban ecosystem services and urban trees

Recently, trees and green spaces are seen as green infrastructure, a living system, as opposed to designed gray infrastructures (Wolf, 2003). Avenue trees are an important element of green infrastructure that provides a wide range of environmental, economic and social benefits to the urban ecosystem (Phillips, 2011, Johnston and Hirons, 2014). Avenue trees provide a number of physical/environmental, economic and social, cultural and aesthetic benefits to the city (Kadir and Othman, 2012). These are ecosystem services such as cleaning and improving the air (Brantley et al., 2013; Freer-Smith et al., 2005; Setala et al., 2013), helping with rainwater management (Denman et al., 2012; Jacobson, 2011; Gill et al., 2007; Ellis, 2012), adding value to properties (Bolund and Hunhammar, 1999; Hiemstra et al., 2008), creating habitats for wildlife (Burden, 2006), and creating microclimatic environments by shading spaces (Wolf, 2003, Ennos, 2010). Also, they include providing regulatory ecosystem services, contributing to shaping the identity of cities (Sari and Karasah, 2018, Kisakürek and Bayazıt, 2018), reducing stress and improving the physical and mental health of its residents (Nordh et al., 2009), and green infrastructure elements that provide cultural ecosystem services (Manes and Salatori, 2014; Kim and Coseo, 2018; Livesley et al., 2016; Hiemstra et al., 2008). These benefits are defined as urban ecosystem services as a whole (Johnston and Hirons, 2014).

Ecosystem services include the benefits that the human population derives directly or indirectly from the ecosystems they belong to (Costanza et al., 1997; MEA, 2005), the conditions and processes created by natural ecosystems and species for the sustainability of human life (Daily, 1997), ecological products directly utilized for human well-being (Boyd and Banzhaf, 2007), ecological features, functions or processes that directly or indirectly contribute to the benefits that people derive from functioning ecosystems (Logsdon, 2011). Ecosystem services are classified into four groups as provisioning services, regulating services, habitat or supporting services and cultural services (MEA, 2005).

Urban avenue trees, one of the components of urban trees, are one of the identifying features of urban landscape (Houde 1997; McPherson and Luttinger 1998). Urban avenue trees also provide many ecosystem services such as urban trees (Burden2006; Rhodes et al., 2011). The trees that are planted in the main arteries of the city (Aslanboğa, 1997) create a desirable background for the architectural structures of the city, hide undesired landscapes, reduce noise, create habitats for wildlife, create microclimates (Küçük and Gül, 2005; Aslanboğa, 1997; Dirik, 1997; Erdoğan, 2009; Aklıbaşında and Erdoğan, 2016) and assist to increase air quality (Aksoy et al., 2000; Islam et al., 2016; Zadeh et al., 2013).

1.2. The role of street trees in provision of microclimate

On regional, urban and local scales, cities have a warmer and drier climate than rural areas, especially at night, as a result of the replacement of soil and vegetation with impermeable surfaces (Oke, 1987). Therefore, daily temperature averages are higher in urban areas where the construction is intense than in regions surrounded by rural areas. (Givoni, 1998; Oke, 1987; Yu and Hien, 2006)

Asphalt significantly reduces surface evaporation and increases heat storage on roads covered with impermeable materials such as concrete and stone as well as constructions. This increase of temperature in urban areas creates urban heat islands (UHI) (Bowler et al., 2010; Givoni, 1998; Karatasou et al., 2006). The urban heat island is the best documented evidence of anthropogenic climate change in urban areas and it is often considered as one of the main characteristics of urban climate (Oke 1979, 1987; Arnfield, 2003; Fortuniak, 2003; Peng et al., 2012). At this point, ecological approaches should be developed in order to reduce the climate change caused by urban heat islands(Ca et al., 1998). In this regard, the active use of avenue trees as a planning tool in urban areas is supported for urban areas to adapt to the changing climate and to improve human health/well-being (Andersson-Sköld et al., 2015; Roy et al., 2012).

Trees create shadow spots by preventing solar rays from reaching pedestrians (Picot, 2004) and reduce heat storage by limiting the heating of impermeable surfaces with high heat capacity and thermal conductivity through solar energy, such as concrete and asphalt. Therefore, increasing vegetation in urban areas can provide assistance by preventing solar radiation, providing shade, and cooling the surrounding air through evapotranspiration (Dimoudi and Nikolopoulou, 2003; Shashua-Bar and Hoffman, 2000). Therefore, it is considered as an effective option to increase plant density in urban areas, to reduce urban heat, and thus, to adapt to climate changes caused by both regional-scale changes in land usage and global-scale changes in atmospheric composition (Gill et al., 2007). In this regard, trees, which are important elements of the urban landscape and street landscape, can create large shade areas for pedestrians and improve the local microclimate they inhibit (Sanusi et al., 2016), can assist to reduce the air temperature and improve human thermal comfort in extremely warm urban areas (Bowler et al., 2010; Sanusi et al., 2016).

1.3. Aim of the study

In addition to their aesthetic and functional features, plantal elements which are used on the roads forming a network within the city are the important components of a city with various ecosystem services they provide for citizens and a city. Especially as a tool that has the potential to alleviate climate-related problems, trees along a road attract significant interest in urban design. The studies that we have been carrying out in our country to determine the adaptation of the plants used in urban roads to the urban conditions, their sustainability and the ecosystem services they provide are not enough. In this study, we have focused on the road trees representing a specific method of greening urban areas that provide certain services and functions (Landry and Chakraborty, 2009; Giergiczny and Kronenberg, 2014).

In the study, we have asserted a study on the main transportation axes of Kayseri city via ENVI-met software to determine the microclimate regulatory ecosystem services that urban road trees provide and to examine their performance in improving outdoor comfort. It is thought that the study will provide a new perspective on the impact of afforestation works on the microclimate in the planning-design and management processes of future urban road afforestation studies, on urban roads (main arteries, intermediate arteries, streets, etc.), and will create awareness about road trees that have the potential to ease problems related to the climate.

This part of the study comprises of 3 stages. It gives the general information about the study areas and features in the first stage. The second stage clarifies the main hypothesis forming the study and the analytical framework of the study The final stage gives the information about the ENVI-met software used in the study and how it was used in it.

2.1. Research case

The study was carried out in Kayseri, which is located between 34° 56 'and 36° 59' east longitudes and 37° 45'and 38° 18' north latitudes in the Central Anatolia Region of Turkey. The altitude is 1054 meters and the continental climate is dominant throughout the city.

Kayseri being an important location in terms of geographical location, is located on the transition road of 46 provinces and enhanced due to its location on the historical road system. With the rapidly increasing population, the city of Kayseri is in an intense construction process (Kahraman 1999) and many new roads and streets are being built. The city is among the remarkable cities of our country with its avenue trees, sidewalks, wide roads and streets.

The road infrastructure was built in the east-west direction according to the general scheme of this main axis and topography in the historical development of the city. The study was carried out on Osman Kavuncu Boulevard and Kocasinan Boulevard constituting the east-west axis of the city, Sivas Boulevard extending parallel to this Boulevard, Mustafa Kemal Pasha Boulevard, Erciyes Boulevard and Talas Boulevard connected to the settlements in the north and south (Fig. 1). These boulevards have 6 lanes and also their largeness varies between 30–50 meters, including pedestrian sidewalks (Erdoğan, 2009).

Figure 1. Kayseri city urban transportation network

Areas measuring 150 x 150 m were determined on the roads that form the main networks of the city. The floor heights of the buildings in the areas, the qualities of the impermeable surfaces, the green areas and the plants used in these areas are shown in Fig. 2.

Figure 2. Plans views of study areas: A) Mustafa Kemal Pasha Boulevard, B) Kocasinan Boulevard, C) Sivas Boulevard, D) Osman Kavuncu Boulevard, E) Talas Boulevard, F) Erciyes Boulevard

2.2. Analytical Framework

The main hypothesis of the study involves the microclimate regulatory effects that urban avenue trees provide. In the study, primarily, 6 different main arteries which comprise the main backbone of the city and are used extensively have been selected. On the selected boulevards, areas that can be the basis of ENVI-met software with similar features have been determined. The plants identified in the sample areas determined in 150 x 150 sizes with the same characteristics by being selected from the ENVI-met database, were processed according to their current locations and climatic simulations were performed. However, P. x acerifolia was chosen instead of P. orientalis, not included in the ENVI-met database, due to the fact that it has similar botanical properties and is a different species belonging to the same family.The data used in ENVI-met software are given below (Table 1).

Table 1

ENVI-met data sets used in simulations
Simulation area	Turkey / Kayseri
Modeling area dimensions	75x75
Grid Dimensions	2x2x2
Coordinates	37 ° 04´ North Latitude / 37 ° 23´ East Longitude
Simulation Date	21 June
Simulation Start Time	06:00
Simulation Duration	24 Hours
Temperature	Long Term (25 years) mean temperature
Relative Humidity	Long Term (25 years) mean relative humidity
Wind Speed	Long Term (25 years) mean wind speed
Soil Temperature	Long Term (25 years) soil temperature
Road/Parking lot	Asphalt Road [ST]
Pedestrian Roads	Pavement (Concrete), used/dirty [PP]
Soil Area	Loamy soil [LO]
Green Area	Grass 50cm Average Dense [XX]
Plants	Picea abies [c4], Pine [c2], Acer negundo [AN], Acer pseudoplatanus [A8], Betula pendula [B7], Fraxinus [CC], Platanus x acerifolia [B8], Robinia pseudoacacia [O3]

Table 1: ENVI-met data sets used in simulations

2.3. ENVI-met software

Different models like i-Tree ECO, UFORE etc. are utilized to determine the regulatory ecosystem services that plants provide in urban areas. These models have been used in many cities around the world and continue to be used as part of the management system of urban trees (City of Melbourne, 2012; Rogers et al., 2011). In this context, studies conducted on the evaluation of ecosystem services regulating the climate and air quality of urban trees in our country as well as in Europe (Kiss et al., 2015) are not sufficient. In addition, some of the data as input to this software cannot be accessed.

With the difference of other models used to determine ecosystem services, the ENVI-met software used in this study is a three-dimensional non-hydrostatic microclimate model. Envi-MET software is a three-dimensional non-hydrostatic microclimate model and both simulate and calculate (temporally 10 s and spatially 0.5-10m) climate in typical grid resolution and different processes in the temporary daily cycle and at high resolution between different urban elements (Bruse, 2007). ENVI-met software works on a stream of spatial scales by simulating surface-plant-air interactions in urban environments at variable intervals in the x, y, and z directions. In addition to projecting small and large-scale climatic effects, the software can assist the plans to do in future to establish optimum use by people and outdoor thermal comfort by reducing environmental effects (Ozkeresteci vd., 2003).

It is seen that Osman Kavuncu Street has the most cooling effect on temperature maps. Although Erciyes Street has similar feature to OKS, the cooling effect is partially lower. Temperature stress was the most common on Talas Street. In MKP Boulevard, it dominates the whole area even though the temperature stress is less. The temperature maps of Kocasinan Boulevard and Sivas Street are almost similar (Fig. 3).

Figure 3: Air Temperature Maps

Humidity values are at the highest levels in Osman Kavuncu and Erciyes Boulevard. It is seen that it is at the lowest level in Sivas Boulevard and at the lowest level in a major part of MKP Boulevard. The humidity level of Kocasinan and Talas Boulevard also showed a wide scale of changes (HOW) (Fig. 4).

Figure 4: Relative Humidity Maps

In parallel with the temperature maps in MRT maps, the cooling effect is high in Osman Kavuncu Boulevard and Erciyes Boulevard. It has been observed that the temperature stress is high in Sivas Street. There is also an intense temperature stress on Kocasinan Boulevard. The maps of MKP and Talas Boulevard show similar features, and it is seen that the cooling effect spreads throughout the map, and the temperature level of the southern parts is high in Talas Boulevard (Fig. 5).

Figure 5: Mean Radiant Temperature Maps

The wind speed was at the highest on Osman Kavuncu Boulevard and the lowest on Sivas Boulevard. MKP and Talas Boulevards show lower wind speeds than Osman Kavuncu Boulevard, and similar wind figures are seen in these two areas. However, there are areas with partially higher wind speeds on Talas Boulevard. The wind maps of Erciyes and Kocasinan Boulevard show similar features and the wind speed is lower than Talas and MKP Boulevard (Fig. 6).

Figure 6: Wind Speed Maps

Urban vegetation can be seen as a mitigator of environmental problems caused by urbanization. (Wania et al., 2012). At this point, it is important to investigate the environmental benefits and ecosystem services provided by urban trees in order to be aware that trees play an effective role in creating healthy, livable and sustainable cities (Kim, 2016).

The global average temperature increase affiliated to climate change, which we have clearly felt its effect in recent years, also causes changes in precipitation regimes (Howard et al., 2016). Green infrastructure systems should be planned in urban areas against these climatic anomalies (Sari and Karaşah, 2020). Especially in metropolitan cities where urbanization is dense, intensive planting will provide significant benefits in reducing the ambient temperature (Jusuf et al., 2007). In this context, vegetation strategies of green corridors (street and boulevards) that function as ventilation of cities as well as concepts such as arid designs, terrace and rain gardens that emerge with climate change should be developed in support of ecosystem services against upcoming climate change risks.

When the relationship between microclimate creation and urban avenue trees is evaluated in the scope of urban ecosystem services, even the presence of a single plant is very important to provide balanced microclimate conditions in urban areas. Rajabi and Abu-Hijleh (2014) emphasized the importance of green areas in reducing temperature and improving microclimate in urban areas in their study in Dubai. However, Jusuf et al. specified the importance of green areas in ensuring the sustainability of the microclimatic comfort of the university campus in their study at the International University of Singapore. In this study, which focuses on the climate regulatory effects of road trees, it was determined that the vegetated avenues contributed significantly to the microclimate of the city.

In Osman Kavuncu boulevard where plants were present, the wind speed was low and in areas where there were no plants, the wind speed was high compared to all maps. Sivas Boulevard, which has the least number of plants in all maps, is the map with the lowest wind speed. From this point of view, it can be concluded that the plants reduce the wind speed in their own areas but increase the wind speed in the nearby areas where there are no plants.

The overall efficiency of the cooling effect due to vegetation also depends on the characteristics of the tree species (shade cover) used in urban road vegetation, the vegetational composition to be made and the surface material below (D'Argent et. al., 2012). The cooling effect of plants on Osman Kavuncu and Erciyes Boulevard increased in direct proportion to the intensity of plant use. Trees with large leaf such as P. x acerifolia usually provide more shade (Brown and Gillespie, 1995). Sanusi et al. (2017) also stated that the Plant Area Index (Pai) of P. x acerifolia is 5.0 and that especially the streets where these plants are located, have significantly different air temperatures, relative humidity, solar radiation, Tmrt and wind speed compared to other streets. The findings obtained as a result of the study support the literature outputs. Namely, we can say that the intensive use of P. x acerifolia on Osman Kavuncu and Erciyes Boulevard is effective in reducing temperature stress compared to other maps.

The research on how trees are beneficial to microclimate have often compared the street in an afforested and non-afforested area. (Georgi and Dimitriou, 2010; Sanusi et al., 2016; Taha et al., 1991). Streets without vegetation generally have higher temperature and wind speed, and lower relative humidity values(Martini et al., 2019). We uncovered new data that support the findings of Martini et al. (2019) due to less vegetation in other boulevards except Osman Kavuncu and Erciyes Boulevard.

We determined that as the vegetation rate increased in urban roads, the temperature, Mrt and wind speed decreased, and the relative humidity increased according to the data obtained as a result of the study. These results support the studies of Martini et al., (2019); Rajabi and Abu-Hijleh (2014); Jusuf et al. (2006); Wania et al. (2012); Vailshery et al. (2013); Nagendra and Gopal (2010).

We investigated that the effect of urban road trees on the street microclimate in this study. We carried out the study in six different main arterial roads forming the skeleton of the city in Kayseri, Turkey.

Urban roads appear as areas where temperature stress is higher due to factors such as impermeable surfaces and heavy vehicle traffic. According to the results of the study, the decrease in temperature, tmrt and wind speed and the increase in relative humidity provided by the vegetation on urban roads show that they contribute significantly to the microclimate in the small sample areas where the study was conducted. In addition, the green areas formed by the plants and plant compositions used within the scope of road afforestation in these areas serve as important regulatory ecosystem services in the city. Besides, trees which provide many ecosystem services such as carbon sequestration, energy saving and recreational value in cities, are an important landscape element for the city and residents. Especially with global warming, climate change will lead to the loss of green texture in urban areas and consequently to a decrease in the services provided by residents from ecosystems. Therefore, the results obtained with this study reveal the importance of trees on road for cities, human health and welfare. Knowing how likely trees on road are to provide microclimatic benefits to residents and pedestrians under hot and sunny conditions, giving the necessary importance to road planting will be extremely useful in the creation of tree information systems.

This study presents data on how urban road vegetation can affect urban ecosystem services at the microclimate level to professional disciplines such as landscape architect, urban planner, agricultural engineer, etc. working in institutions affiliated to the relevant ministries and local governments. Planting trees in areas where there is no road vegetation, especially in areas where urbanization is intense in the city, will have a great impact on the improvement of the microclimate.

Ethics approval: N/A.

Competing interests: The author(s) declared no potential competing of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Authors’ contribution: A.T. wrote the introduction and material sections. M.Y. wrote the methods and research findings sections. A.T. and M.Y. co-wrote the discussion and conclusion parts. All authors reviewed the manuscript.

Funding: N/A.

Availability of data and materials: N/A.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST

There is no conflict of interest between the authors.

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Microclimate Related Ecosystem Services Provided by Street Trees in the Urban Areas: A Case Study of Kayseri

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Abstract

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1. Introduction

1.1. Approach of urban ecosystem services and urban trees

1.2. The role of street trees in provision of microclimate

1.3. Aim of the study

2. Methodology

2.1. Research case

2.2. Analytical Framework

2.3. ENVI-met software

3. Results

4. Discussion

CONCLUSION

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References

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