Harsh Parenting and Suicide Ideation among Chinese Adolescents: The Roles of Self-esteem and School Social Support

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Harsh Parenting and Suicide Ideation among Chinese Adolescents: The Roles of Self-esteem and School Social Support

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While negative parenting style has considered as a risk factor for suicide ideation, little attention has been given to the mechanisms between harsh parenting and suicide ideation. This study explored the mechanism underlying the relationship between harsh parenting and suicide ideation among Chinese adolescents. Participants were 4189 Chinese adolescents who completed measures of harsh parenting, school social support, self-esteem, and suicide ideation. The results demonstrated that beyond the direct impact of harsh parenting on adolescent suicide ideation, harsh parenting also indirectly contributed to adolescent suicide ideation via the mediator of adolescents’ self-esteem. School social support moderated the relationship between harsh parenting and self-esteem as well as the relationship between self-esteem and suicide ideation. The buffering effect of school social support is limited as risk increasing. The findings suggest potential pathways for suicide prevention and intervention strategies.

harsh parenting

suicide ideation

self-esteem

school social support

As a serious global public health issue, suicide is the fourth leading cause of mortality in 15–19-year-olds [1]. Suicide ideation is defined as thoughts about engaging in suicidal behavior, which confers risk for suicide attempts and completed suicide [2]. The rates of suicide ideation increase during early adolescence and reaching a peak at approximately the age of 15 years, then decline thereafter [3]. Besides contributing to mortality outcome, suicidal ideation in adolescence can produce negative consequences that last far into adulthood. Adolescents who reported suicidal ideation have a higher probability of psychiatric disorders, problem behaviors and compromised functioning [4, 5]. It is crucial, therefore, to better understand the factors that lead adolescents to consider suicide.

Harsh parenting typically involves parental discipline behaviors instance of yelling, spanking, slapping, shoving, or hitting the child with an object [6], which is characterized by a low acceptance and high strictness, and related to authoritarian style [7]. With verbally-abusive parenting (e.g., shouting, threatening, or yelling), and physically-abusive parenting (e.g., spanking) being the most universal forms [8], harsh parenting is highly prevalent around the world [9]. According to the interpersonal psychological theory of suicide, suicidal desire occurs when an individual experiences thwarted belongingness and perceived burdensomeness [10]. Adolescents who experiencing hash parenting may feel insecure in the family and develop the frustrated sense of belonging to family and see themselves as a burden or disappointment to other people, all of which can trigger suicidal ideation.

There is strong evidence that children exposed to harsh parenting are at risk for a myriad of adverse developmental outcomes such as anxiety, depression, negative self-evaluations, and internalizing problems behaviors [8,11,12,13,14]. Theses variables are in turn associated with suicide ideation [15], thus, harsh parenting may increase the odds of suicide ideation. Nevertheless, empirical connections between harsh parenting and suicide ideation are relatively rare. The present study aimed to examine the direct effect of harsh parenting on Chinese adolescents suicide ideation.

Despite harsh parenting may lead to suicide ideation directly, not all children who face such stressors will develop suicide ideation. As the stress-vulnerability model posits, suicidal ideation is determined not merely by the stressor but a multidimensional process that evolves through ongoing transactions of various variables such as personal traits and social support [16, 17]. The current study intends to analyse the association between harsh parenting and adolescent suicide ideation, with special attention to the roles of self-esteem and school support in this association, in order to provide effective suggestions for the prevention and intervention of adolescents suicide.

The Mediating Role Of Self-esteem

Self-esteem refers to an individual’s overall evaluation of self, is closely correlated with perceptions of others' evaluations of oneself [18, 19]. The sociometer theory proposes that self-esteem reflects a person’s relational value, which will increase when one being liked and accepted and decrease when one being rejected and excluded [19, 20]. As such, self-esteem is a construct saturated with both belongingness and burdensomeness and has been shown to be affected by parenting behavior [21, 22]. Negative feedback from significant others provides information that children many internalize, which lays the foundation for self-perceived incompetence and low self-worth [23]. Previous research has suggested that negative parenting practices may be detrimental to the self-esteem. For instance, one study by Smokowski et al. (2015) revealed that negative parenting strategies related to lower self-esteem [24]. Cole et al. (2016) demonstrated that harsh parenting predict the construction of depressive self-schemas in children and adolescents [11].

As an essential part of the individual’s self-concept, self-esteem is a protective factor linked to psychological functioning, which directly related to mental health during adolescence [25] and significantly predicted suicidal ideation [26]. For example, a cross-sectional study on teenagers in Vietnam discovered the connection between low self-esteem and suicidal ideation [27]. Similarly, a longitudinal study by Reid-Russell et al. (2021) suggested that implicit self-esteem is a potential mechanism linking childhood abuse to depression and suicidal ideation [28]. Based on the literature, it seems reasonable to infer that harsh parenting, as negative interactions between parents and children, may precede children’s low self-esteem, ultimately leading to suicide ideation.

The Moderating Role of School Social Support

School-aged youths spend more time in schools than in any other place except their homes. According to stage-environment fit theory, school is an essential developmental context for adolescents in which teachers and peers foster a environment that is responsive to the basic and developmental needs (e.g., interpersonal support) of adolescents [29, 30]. School provides a potential arena for adolescents to escape the negative parenting and fosters the sense of belonging and connectedness that may compensate for a lack of parental support. In addition, stress-buffering theory advocates that social support is a moderating factor in students’ lives, the perception of a strong social support could attenuate the adverse psychological effects of stressful events by strengthening internal resources for coping with negative life events [31].

Years of research have shown that the social support adolescents perceive from teachers and peers have a profound influence on mental health; it has been correlated negatively with depression, suicide ideation, and suicide attempts; and related positively with self-esteem, social skills and adaptive skills [32, 33, 34, 35]. For instance, the research conducted by Tang et al. (2018) found that peer acceptance lessened the deleterious effects of harsh parenting on adolescent depression through buffering the effect of negative self-cognition on depression [36]. Likewise, a recent study by Zhang et al. (2021) suggested that school belonging could moderate the direct relations between emotional abuse and suicide ideation [37]. Therefore, it is conceivable that school social support might compromise the negative impact of harsh parenting on adolescents self-esteem, also, school social support may abate the association between poor self-esteem and suicide ideation.

The Present Study

Aimed to further explore the relationship between harsh parenting and suicide ideation, the current study tested the mediation effects of self-esteem and the moderation effects of school social support involved in this relationship among adolescents in Chinese context. Based on the previous studies, three hypotheses are formulated: (1) harsh parenting may predict suicidal ideation;(2) self-esteem may mediate the association between harsh parenting and suicidal ideation; (3) school social support would moderate the relationship between harsh parenting and suicidal ideation via self-esteem.

Participants

Convenience sampling method was adopted to select Grade 7–12 students from six schools in Hunan, China. A total of 4189 students participated in this study, 2209 males (52.7%), 1976 females (47.2%), and 4 were missing gender information. Participants in the sample ranged in age from 10 to 20 years, the mean age was 13.94 years (SD = 1.73). Informed consents were obtained from students and their caregivers before the survey. The privacy and anonymity of their answers were guaranteed.

Measures

Suicide Ideation

Chinese revision of Positive and Negative Suicide Ideation (PANSI) Inventory was employed to assess the frequency of suicide ideation. The scale was developed by Osman et al. (1998) [38] and revised by Wang et al. (2011) [39]. The PANSI is a 14-item self-report instrument that composed of two sub-scale: positive ideation (PANSI-PI; 6 items) and negative suicide ideation (PANSI-NSI; 8 items). Each item is rated on a 5-point Likert scale that ranges from 1 (none of the time) to 5 (most of the time). Total score is obtained by summing all items after reverse scoring the PANSI-PI items. Higher scores represent more suicide ideation. Cronbach’s alphas in this study was 0.91.

Harsh Parenting

The Harsh Discipline Scale revised by Wang (2017) [40] was employed to examine harsh parenting. Participants completed a 4-item scale for each of their parents (e.g.,When you did something wrong, how often did your mom (dad) lose her temper and yell at you?;When you did something wrong, how often did your mom (dad) tell you to get out or lock you out of the house?). Each item was rated on a five-point Likert scale (1 = never, 5 = always). Higher scores indicate harsher parenting. Cronbach’s alphas in this study was 0.87.

Self-Esteem

Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES) was used to measures adolescents’ global feelings of self-worth [18]. The scale consists of 10 items, each item was rated on a five-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree, 5 = strongly disagree). Higher scores indicate higher self-esteem. Cronbach’s alpha in this study was 0.89.

School Social Support

Perceived School Climate Scale revised by Jia et al. [41] was used to measures the frequency of perceived teacher support (7 items) and peer support (13 items). All items have a 4-point response scale (1 = never, 4 = always). Higher values indicating higher levels of school social support. Cronbach’s alpha in this study was 0.90.

Data Analysis

Descriptive statistics and correlations using SPSS 26. The mediation model (Model 4) and the moderated mediation model (Model 59) were tested using the PROCESS macro [42]. Age and gender were included in both models as control variables. In Step 1, computing the means, standard deviations, and correlations among the main variables. In step 2, exploring whether self-esteem mediated the relationship between harsh parenting and suicide ideation. In Step 3, testing whether the mediation found in Step 2 was moderated by school social support.

Common Method Bias

Harman’s single-factor test [43] was used to test common method bias; the results showed nine factors with characteristic roots more significant than 1. The first principal factor explained 26.38% of the variance (< 40%), which meant that our study had no serious standard method bias.

Descriptive statistics and correlations

The means, standard deviations (SD), and correlation coefficients for all variables considered in this study are indicated in Table 1. Suicide ideation positively associated with harsh parenting (r = 0.38, p < 0.001), negatively associated with self-esteem (r= -0.72, p < 0.001), school social support (r= -0.49, p < 0.001). Significant negative correlations were found between harsh parenting and self-esteem (r= -0.30, p < 0.001).

Table 1

Descriptive statistics and correlations
	1	2	3	4	5	6
1 Age	1
2 Gender^a	-0.03	1
3 Harsh parenting	-0.01	-0.06^***	1
4 Self-esteem	-0.09^***	-0.05^**	-0.30^***	1
5 School social support	-0.18^***	0.06^***	-0.32^***	0.41^***	1
6 Suicide ideation	0.10^***	0.09^***	0.38^***	-0.72^***	-0.49^***	1
M	13.94	-	13.12	34.97	60.20	27.46
SD	1.73	-	5.23	8.27	9.39	9.11
Note. N = 4189, ^a Male = 0, Female = 1. p < 0.05. p < 0.01. **p < 0.001.

The Mediating Role Of Self-esteem

Consistent with the first hypothesis, harsh parenting had a significant direct path to suicide ideation (β = 0.39, SE = 0.01, p＜0.001). When self-esteem was included in the model, harsh parenting still significantly associated with suicide ideation ( β = 0.19, SE = 0.01, p＜0.001); harsh parenting negatively predicted self-esteem (β=-0.30, SE = 0.02, p＜0.001); self-esteem negatively predicted suicide ideation (β=-0.65, SE = 0.01, p＜0.001). The indirect effect between harsh parenting and suicide ideation via self-esteem was significant (α*β = 0.20, 95% CI [0.18, 0.22]) and the indirect effect’s proportion of the total effect was 51.30%, which supported the second hypothesis, self-esteem partially mediated the relation between harsh parenting and suicide ideation.

The Moderating Role of School Social Support

As displayed in Table 2, the first model provided a significant harsh parenting×school social support interaction effect on adolescents’ self-esteem (β=–0.04, p = 0.001), suggesting that school social support would buffer the association between harsh parenting to self-esteem. The second model provided a significant self-esteem×school social support interaction effect on adolescents’ suicide ideation (β = 0.06, p < 0.001), suggesting that indirect effect from self-esteem to suicide ideation is moderated by school social support. The analysis supported the third hypothesis that school social support would buffer the association between harsh parenting and suicidal ideation via self-esteem.

Table 2

The moderated mediation effect of harsh parenting on suicide ideation
	Model 1(self-esteem)		Model 2(suicide ideation)
	β	t	β	t
Gender	-0.16	-6.00***	0.15	7.70***
Age	-0.02	-2.36*	0.01	2.13*
Harsh parenting	-0.20	-13.23***	0.14	12.02***
School social support	0.35	23.79***	-0.19	-16.93***
Harsh parenting × School social support	-0.04	-3.21**	-0.01	-1.57
Self-esteem			-0.59	-52.86***
Self-esteem × School social support			0.06	6.58***
R²	0.21		0.59
F	221.66***		859.20***
Note: Analyses conducted using PROCESS model 59

Simple slope tests demonstrated that harsh parenting significantly negatively predict self-esteem (bsimple=–0.17, t=–10.21, p < 0.001) at low level of social support (M-1SD); this indirect effect was stronger(bsimple=–0.24, t=–10.94, p < 0.001)at high level of school social support (M + 1SD) (See Fig. 1). For perceived low school social support individuals, higher self-esteem was associated with lower suicide ideation (bsimple=–0.65, t=–45.71, p < 0.001); for perceived high school social support individuals, the effect of self-esteem on suicide ideation was weaker (bsimple=–0.52, t=–34.80, p < 0.001) (See Fig. 2).

The current study shed light on the mechanisms underlying the relationship between harsh parenting and adolescents’ suicide ideation. The results demonstrated that beyond the direct effect, the contribution of harsh parenting to adolescent suicide ideation could be explicated partially by impaired self-esteem. Moreover, the moderating role of perceived school social support were manifested in the indirect relation between harsh parenting and adolescents' suicide ideation through self-esteem.

The present study showed that harsh parenting is a risk factor for adolescent suicide ideation, strengthened extant research linking negative parenting style to suicide ideation [37, 44, 45]. The finding backed up the interpersonal psychological theory of suicide [10], which states that parenting processes are the crucial interpersonal interaction, and harsh parenting may impair teenagers’ feeling of belonging and foster interpersonal insecurity. Researchers have noted that adolescents who perceived authoritarian parenting, low parental warmth, and high controlling had more suicide ideation than those with better functioning families [46, 47]. Therefore, suicidal ideation can be considered as an indication of ineffective parenting.

The result also revealed that adolescent self-esteem accounts for a significant proportion of the associations between harsh parenting and adolescent suicide ideation. The more harsh parenting the adolescents perceived, the more impaired was their self-esteem, which increase the risk of suicidal ideation. In parallel with the integrated motivational-volitional model of suicidal behavior [48], stressful life experiences and consequent low self-esteem operate as vulnerability factors in the pre-motivational phase and predict suicide ideation during the motivational phase. Similarly, parental acceptance-rejection theory holds that individuals who perceived parental rejection are likely to define themselves as unworthy of love and develop a sense of overall negative self-evaluation [49]. They are also more disposed to develop behavior problems, depression, and other psychological disorders than accepted ones[50]. Thus, teenagers with low self-esteem may prone to consider suicide as a alternative to solve the distressing cognitions and emotions connected to harsh parenting and negative self-concept, once again highlighting the self-esteem as a protective factor.

The results revealed that school social support moderated the relationship between harsh parenting and self-esteem through a pattern of reverse stress-buffering process [51]. Specifically, at low level of harsh parenting, adolescents with high school social support had higher self-esteem than those with poor support, but it is worth noting that this advantage weakened as the amount of harsh parenting grew. One interpretation, based on the existential work of Vanderbilt-Adriance and Shaw (2008), is that families remains primacy to youth throughout childhood and adolescence, despite the growing need for independence and reaching out into the wider social environment during adolescence [52]. Furthermore, harsh parenting is not present in isolation but bound up with other risk factors. Considering only one category of risk is likely to underestimate the full impact of risk experienced by children and adolescents. Except the cumulative character, the continuity nature of family environment risk magnifies its destructive impact. The findings on reverse risk-buffering effects indicate that we should not only realize that the protective role of school social support is limited, but also implement preventive interventions for adolescents who are undergoing harsh parenting.

Another finding of this study is that the effect of self-esteem on reducing suicide ideation was stronger among adolescents with low versus high school social support. According to the threat-to-self-esteem model of support receipt [53], helping has both supportive and self-threatening components. The self-threatening components threaten the individual’s evaluation of their self-worth and competence, leading to increased depressed mood and psychological distress. People with high self-esteem especially sensitive to the threatening aspects of help from others [54]. Social support may therefore become a source of pressure hinder its potential efficiency as the adjustment resource. In sum, results indicate that self-esteem is a salient protective factor among adolescents with low as well as high school social support to ameliorate the risk of suicide among adolescents.

Results obtained from this study should be interpreted within the context of several limitations. First, the findings are correlational due to the nature of cross-sectional study. A longitudinal study could conduct to draw cause-and-effect conclusions. Second, the generalizability of the findings is limited, studies based on different areas in China and different cultural backgrounds will contribute to the literature on this topic. Third, the association between harsh parenting and negative outcomes appears to vary by parent and child gender [55], future research should take the gender into account.

Despite these shortcomings, this study not only provides insights into the ways in which harsh parenting be related to adolescent suicide ideation, but also presents meaningful inspirations for prevention and intervention efforts. Given the limited buffering effect of school social support, it would be more effective to focus on prevention than on intervention to reduce the connection between harsh parenting and adolescent suicide ideation.

Summary

The current study explores the mechanism underlying the relationship between harsh parenting and suicide ideation among Chinese adolescents. The results demonstrated that harsh parenting was a risk factor for adolescents’ suicide ideation and this association could be explicated partially by impaired self-esteem. School social support acted a protective role and moderated the relationship between harsh parenting and self-esteem as well as the relationship between self-esteem and suicide ideation, but it is worth noting that this advantage weakened as the level of harsh parenting and self-esteem grew. The findings underscore the importance of negative parenting and self-esteem to understand the shape of suicide ideation.

Funding This study was supported by Grant XJK22ZDJD24 from the Foundation of Hunan Provincial Educational Science Research Base.

Compliance with Ethical Standards

Conflict of Interest The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Ethics Approval The study was reviewed and approved by the IRB, Institute of Psychology, Hunan Normal University, and carried out in accordance with the recommendations. All participants guardians gave written informed consent in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki.

Informed Consent Informed consent was obtained from both all individual participants included in the study and their legal guardians.

Author Contributions Statement Yulong Wang conceived and designed the research. Jingfei zhao performed the analysis and wrote the main manuscript text. Both authors collected the data and reviewed the manuscript.

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No competing interests reported.

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Harsh Parenting and Suicide Ideation among Chinese Adolescents: The Roles of Self-esteem and School Social Support

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Abstract

Figures

Introduction

The Mediating Role Of Self-esteem

The Moderating Role of School Social Support

The Present Study

Method

Participants

Measures

Suicide Ideation

Harsh Parenting

Self-Esteem

School Social Support

Data Analysis

Results

Common Method Bias

Descriptive statistics and correlations

The Mediating Role Of Self-esteem

The Moderating Role of School Social Support

Discussion

Summary

Declarations

References

Additional Declarations

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