Converting Plastic  Nuisance into a Valuable Resource: Reuse of Residual Plastic Bottles for Manufacturing (3D) Home Printers Under Economic and Improved Environmental Considerations

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-2216695/v1

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Converting Plastic Nuisance into a Valuable Resource: Reuse of Residual Plastic Bottles for Manufacturing (3D) Home Printers Under Economic and Improved Environmental Considerations

https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-2216695/v1

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Plastic processes and products are constantly growing. About two million tons of plastic were produced in 1950. In 2015, about 380 million tons of plastic were manufactured, of which only around four million tons were sent for recycling during the same year. Plastic pollution has become a global problem. Plastic products and waste cause an environmental hazard that disfigures the natural landscape, damaging aquatic ecology, adversely impacting marine habitat, soils, air, causing groundwater contamination, and increasing greenhouse gas emissions.

The three dimensions (3D) printing process is utilizing a computer-aided design (CAD) model, usually by successively adding material in layers. Fused deposition modeling (FDM) – frequently called filament freeform fabrication, is a 3D printing process that uses thermoplastic material as a continuous filament. The goal of the work is to build a prototype printer that uses disposed plastic bottles as a source for raw material. The idea for current work stems from the need to save resources and simultaneously protect the environment.

A 3D home printer was created for this purpose however, changes and adjustments were made to implement the idea of the project. A plastic bottle cutter was built in order to insert the raw material into the prototype printer. In addition, the framework of the extruder was substituted and a nozzle diameter was installed. Additional adjustments were made in the printer to maintain a continuous and uniform flow of the hot plastic that was poured onto the printer surface during the printing process.

Three-dimension home printers

Plastic bottles recycling

Fused deposition modeling

Environmental sustainability

1.1 Types of plastic

The need for additional sustainable resources and improved use of raw materials is growing worldwide. Although green chemistry provides theories and practical tools that would lead to advanced chemical products, they will eventually end up in the environment. Plastic appliances, such as various kinds of bottles, bags, packing kits are good examples of green chemistry worldwide.

The rapid increase of plastic production in the last decades is resulting in an accumulation of debris all over the planet (Bouwmeester et al. 2015). Global plastic production (during the year 2021) is close to 380 million tons per year, over 40% to 50% of which is used as a packaging substance, resulting in plastic waste (Figure 1). The amounts of disposed of plastic have decreased, however, further measures are required for the recycling and reuse of these resources. Utilizations of the massive amounts of the disposed of plastic can be accomplished via different processes such as incineration, pyrolysis, skimming, and burning processes for energy reclamation and other uses (Ferdous et al. 2021).

There is a series of plastic materials that are commonly used in industries: drinks and beverages, agriculture, various machinery products and other areas of daily life (Geyer et al. 2017; Chan et al. 2021). The information concerning the characteristics and origin of every plastic component and the options of recycling and reuse is available. Economic support considerations at the decision-making level of what will be the preferable way to reuse plastic are subject to its material characteristics.

The structure of the original polymer's main plastics components can be classified into the followings: (i) Polyethylene Terephthalate (PETE or PET) which is the main raw material used for bottle production and is utilized for mineral water, soft drink, beer bottles, and some shampoos; (ii) High-Density Polyethylene (HDPE) that are used for detergents, food boxes, milk bottles, garden furniture, compost containers and others; (iii) Polyvinyl Chlorides (PVC) which are used for credits cards, carpet covering, pipes, frames of windows and doors; (iv) Low-Density Polyethylene (LDPE) materials that are applied for films, flexible bottles, packing staff, and irrigation equipment (mainly pipes); (v) Polypropylenes (PP) which are used in the ketchup and syrup industry, heavy duty bags, lunch boxes, biscuit wrapping and others; (vi) Polystyrenes or Styrofoam (PS) that are used to contain fast food applications, video cassettes, and; (vii) Miscellaneous plastics which includes polycarbonate, polylactide, acrylic, acrylonitrile butadiene, styrene, fiberglass, and nylon. For better environment control, it will be essential to have better knowledge regarding the various plastic types, their characteristics, and uses, as well as the resin identification and codes found in each (Echchakoui and Barka, 2020; Elsheikh et al. 2022). Special attention during plastic production processes and related wastes has to be focused on the impact of improved environmental aspects (Guo et al. 2022).

Currently, there are several procedures in plastic manufacturing (Wu 2022). These processes are subject to the purpose of use, type of basic plastic product, manufacturing means, economic considerations, and life span expectancy of the product. Some of the main methods of plastic processing will be discussed presently.

2.1 Thermoforming Processes

Subject to the proposed approach the given plastic sheets are heated until becoming flexible in the specialized purpose molds. The new plastic gets the shape of the mold, and cooling air is injected into the container. Two plastic formats are produced: (i) a male, and; (ii) a female one. The thermoforming method enables the male form to embed into the female component and thus creates a thin wall plastic structure. The great advantage of the current method is the speed of production, whereas its limitation is the sensitivity to the breakdown of the thin wall layer, associated with the losses of around 20% of raw material (Vlachopoulos and Strutt 2003; Amiri et al. 2017). This production method is applied for food products, medical and electronic packing.

2.2 Compressed Molding

In this process, the polymer is installed above a specialized purpose form and is pressed down into the mold, using a heated hydraulic piston. This process is acceptable to produce small batches however, it requires skilled workers, is less advantageous for complex structures, and is time-consuming (Vlachopoulos and Strutt 2003; Park and Lee 2012).

2.3 Rotation Molding

According to this method, the raw material is inserted in melted phase within the molds that are rotating around two axes. The warm material in the manufacturing container takes on the shape of the form. The main associated limitations are the demand for educated workers and high production expenses (Pop-Iliev and Cannon 2017; Weber 2018).

2.4 Extrusion

In this method the plastic raw material is injected into the mold with a rotating screw via a pipe and is gradually heated. The proposed profile is received and subsequently is cut at the outlet according to the preliminary design. The required equipment for production is inexpensive and the method is commonly used to produce pipes and longitude profiles (Vlachopoulos and Strutt 2003).

2.5 Calendaring Process – Sheet Forming Process

Under this method, plastic material is subject to several calendars which in the end yields a flat surface useable substance for further production of diverse products (Wang et al. 2021). Unfortunately, the flat surface is thin and tends to break down frequently. The main use of the products manufactured by the Calendaring process is for constructing floors in diverse buildings.

2.6 Injection Molding

This plastic process consists of two main stages: (i) the plastic particles are first heated and moved forward by a rotating screw, and; (ii) the plastic particles are then pushed forward into the designed form (Vlachopoulos and Strutt 2003).The flexibility of product manufacturing is associated with extended expenses and the production can be considered, to some extent, as complex procedures (Godec et al. 2012).

2.7 Blow Molding

In this process, small plastic particles are injected and melted in an extruder, then further blown and injected into the final configuration form. This method enables the production of many diverse required forms and is widely used in the industry (Castro-Aguirre et al. 2016).Several blow methods applicable for hollow forms of plastic products are available.

3.1 Monitoring of Plastic Contamination

The continuous increase in the manufacturing of plastic products and the use of synthetic materials is associated with considerable amounts of residuary and by-product disposal. Environmental contamination by plastics is becoming a worldwide problem and consequently a field of intensive research (Driscoll et al. 2021). Plastic littering, including microplastics, with an expanding hazard, is a new researched field in environmental pollution investigation (Gorokhova et al. 2020). Plastics have become of global concern as an emerging pollutant, having an environmental impact on daily life. Residual plastics appear in diverse chemical and physical forms such as color and shape. One of the leading goals of the ongoing research is the examination and characterization of the toxicological impact of the different plastics on the environment. Identification and detection of plastic contamination, particularly microplastics in the marine environment, soils, air and on land, is on the increase. For example, it has been identified that soil biota is adversely affected by plastic particles of several mm size (Wan et al. 2019; Sobhani et al. 2021).Plastic debris plays a key role in the contamination of water bodies, land, and air.

There are at least two main stages of controlling the pollution rate: (i) identifying the contaminating organizations, requiring them to take adequate measures to reduce pollution, and; (ii) sampling the amounts per time and unit area emerging from each polluting organization. Several methods have been developed and applied for determining the pollution rate which includes the sampling according to the monitoring protocols and the type of composition of the plastic contamination. The method of sampling includes microscopy, spectroscopy, thermal analysis, physical presence, accumulation- and evidence (Barrows et al. 2017; Delgado-Gallardo et al. 2021; Nicolai et al. 2022).Microplastics (particle size ranging between 100 nm and 1 µm) have been detected and documented in numerous aquatic and ecosystems worldwide. This type of environmental contamination has been found in freshwaters, as well as oceans and in diverse types of ponds that are commonly used for sea life rearing (Eerkes-Medrano et al. 2015).

3.2 Contamination due to Large Plastic Particles: Bottles, Plastic Sheets, and Others

Polypropylene (PP) and Polyethylene (PET) components are widely acceptable materials in the plastics industry for packaging liquids such as drinking and detergent bottles. Extrusion blown molded PET-HDPE as a body and injection molded PP as a screw cap are often used. Separation of individual polymer types is found to be difficult due to their similar density (Karaagac et al. 2012).In addition, a review of the percentage of recycled Polypropylene (rPP) contamination in recycled PET-HDPE (rPET-HDPE) from post-consumer bottle wastes was made. The contamination results show that an increasing percentage of rPP in the recycling process weakens the plastic at certain points of the molding (Rahman et al. 2021).Bottled water (consisting of PP) enhanced the discussions regarding possible risks of applying recycling methods due to the consequent high percentages of rPP.

This review summarizes the presence of several groups of emerging contaminants including microplastics (MPs) which include the following: those incorporated into pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs'), bisphenol A (BPA), phthalates, alkylphenols (Aps'), perfluoroalkyl, and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs') in bottled water from different sources (Cooper et al. 2011; Bui et al. 2018; Lonca et al. 2020).Previously analyzed data indicated that MPs particles ranging in size from 1 to 5 μm show that they are the most predominant and potentially toxic components (Akhbarizadeh et al. 2020).

3.3 Effect of Contamination by Microplastic-Tiny Particles

Residual MP pollution represents growing environmental risks for oceans and other open surface water bodies due to their potential for adsorbing chemical, physical and sights pollutants. Residual MPs represent a new and limitedly explored source of diverse pollutants to which aquatic organisms are exposed. (Avio et al. 2015 ; Lu et al. 2018 ; de Sá et al. 2018 ; Menzel et al. 2021). For example, the presence of Polyethylene (PE) and polystyrene (PS) microplastics in the waters indicates the absorbance of pyrene, which is time and dose-response-dependent. The appearance of pyrene in the water bodies and other disposal sites was also noticed as a primary hazard to aquatic life. Gall and Thompson (2015) report that the presence of MP in the water caused the death of birds, turtles, mammalian and other sea organisms. Other adverse impacts include cellular effects incorporating phenomena, such as destroying lysosomal compartment, peroxisomal proliferation, antioxidant system, changes in gene expression profile, and new DNA microarray platform. Microplastic contamination is an emerging phenomenon of global concern (Kankanige and Babel 2020). Commonly, the MP particles are defined as solid synthetic organic polymers with sizes ranging from 100 nm to 5 mm (Duis and Coors 2016; Wright and Kelly 2017; Chen et al. 2021).Microplastic pollutants are often a result of human daily life activities which include food consumption, cosmetic product use, wearing of synthetic clothes, drug vectors, and other cultural behaviors (Browne et al. 2011; Jeong et al. 2016; Paço et al. 2017; McDevitt et al. 2017). Currently, microplastic particles which appear in drinking water, wastewater, oceans debris, and eventually treatment plants, are the most prominent emerging pollutant. The polluting factors can be found in the air and land sites. However, due to the improved monitoring equipment and methods, nanosized plastic elements have been identified in the environment, in various forms and locations.

Plastic pollution particles have been newly defined (or ranked at various levels) in the last decade, as particles of less than 5 µm were effectively entering into the systems (Skaf et al. 2020). Microplastic is manufactured for various applications including exfoliants (microbeads) and several personal care products. Global plastic production is currently (the year 2022) exceeding four hundred million metric tons (MT) per year, where over 40% of it is commonly used as sole use for packaging (Menzel et al. 2021). It is anticipated that until the year 2050, the amount of disposed plastic will increase to 1,800 million tons per year (Wright and Kelly 2017).

These elements are frequently detected in aquatic environments including oceans, lakes, and rivers, marine products such as seafood and salts, and even in air sediments (van Cauwenberghe et al. 2013; Eerkes-Medrano et al. 2015; Paço et al. 2017; Wright and Kelly 2017).First attempts to refer to plastic debris were focused on plastic in general. Only in the last decade, plastic pollution was classified separately into larger particles and MP. The continuous oscillating of the seawater breaks the large particles into smaller size degraded plastic fragments: micro (0.1−1000 μm) and potentially nanosized (≤ 0.1 μm) particles. Implementing ultra-violet radiation detection methods, primarily in the ocean, allowed defining the plastic biodegradation into tiny particles, namely microplastic (Lin et al. 2020; Liu et al. 2022).

Studies have demonstrated the toxic and physical properties of MP cause augmented levels of animal disease and death of Zebrafish, Danio rerio freshwater fish, primarily whales and others ocean living organisms (Lei et al. 2018; Pastorino et al. 2021). In addition, associated environmental damages can be assessed by small tropical freshwater fish suffering the toxic effects due to their small size (Geyer et al. 2017). The MP contamination factors can also be found in the soil and the air causing breathing difficulties (Sobhani et al. 2021).

Detailed information concerning the many sizes of plastic contaminants has been previously analyzed (Saarela et al. 2015; Esiukova et al. 2020).The anticipated destructive consequences of the adverse impact of the polluting elements can be identified by application of the μ-Raman spectroscopy analysis (Giese et al. 2021).According to the μ-Raman spectroscopy, the polymer forms, types of synthetic dyes, images of MPs, the hit ratio between the specimen spectra and reference spectra can be recognized (Esiukova et al. 2020). In the framework of their work, various authors focused on characterizing the quality of the contaminants, primarily along the seashores (Browne et al. 2011).

3.4 Plastic Contamination and Environment Risks

Plastic pollution is a global problem and includes both macro and microplastics presented in freshwater, marine ecosystems, and elsewhere (Ryan 2015; Panagopoulos and Haralambous 2020).These pollutants are found in the arctic, tropical environments, coral reefs, and the deep seas (Courtene-Jones et al. 2017; Cózar et al. 2017; Chen et al. 2021; Song et al. 2021).The definition of micro-plastics (MP) refers to the debris particles in the range of 1 to 5 µm however, recently it was extended as mentioned above to a broader range of 100 nm to 1 µm (Hartmann et al. 2019).

The annual amount of plastic disposed at the various environmental sites is assessed at around 60% of the worldwide production. Today (the year 2022), the total estimated discarded plastic is around 240 to 260 million tons per year (based on various data provided by various researchers). The rest of the wasted plastic is incinerated for energy production and only lesser amounts are recycled. The disposal of plastic can be found in many sites though the majority is mainly located in the oceans and large water bodies. Plastic contamination consists primarily of two major components: (i) large elements such as plastic bottles, plastic sheets, and packages substances, and; (ii) microplastic that consist of personal care and cosmetic products, textile products and mismanaged plastics manufacturing (Binelli et al. 2022).

3.5. Effect of Residuals Micro Plastic on Health

Residual plastic can be classified into four main groups (Pico and Barcelo 2019): (i) nano plastics ranging from 1 nm up to around 100 nm; (ii) microplastics ranging from 100 nm up to around 1µm; (iii) meso-plastics ranging from 1 µm to 1 mm, and; (iv) macro plastics ranging from 1 mm to 1 cm. This classification is of general limits and boundaries and is consequently adaptable subject to the circumstances of the cases analyzed. Microplastics are ingested by aquatic animals, affecting their growth, species, development and resulting in basic elements transfer to higher organisms in the food chain (Prata et al. 2020; Chen et al. 2021).Gall and Thompson (2015) report that presence of MP in waters caused death of various organisms such as birds, turtles and mammalian. Limited information is available concerning the health effects of MP exposure on human health (Campanale et al. 2020). However, human exposure to MP contamination involves ingestion, inhalation, and dermal contact.

The related paper reviews the existing evidence referring to the potential human health effects of MP and directions for solutions (Rahman et al. 2021).Human exposure to microplastics can cause toxicity through oxidative stress, inflammatory lesions, and increased uptake or translocation. There are publications indicating metabolic disturbances, neurotoxicity, and increased cancer risk in humans (Ye et al. 2021; Sun et al. 2021).

Microplastic particle pollutants can affect directly human health and can also cause many nuisances to regular community daily life. People which are most likely to experience health effects caused by the particle pollutants with the adverse consequences stemming from a series of occurrences of the MP in the air, land, water, or/and other media are: (i) people with different heart diseases such as fast heartbeat, ventricular fibrillation, tiredness, lung diseases (e.g., asthma disease, as particle pollution can make asthmatic symptoms worse); (ii) older adults with varied health issues; (iii) babies at birth and children (e.g., low birth weight); (iv) eye nuisances; (v) lung and throat irritation; (vi) trouble in regular breathing, and; (vii) lung and other cancers.

A study of the effects of MP concentration on the health and development of tilapia fish (Oreochromis niloticus) was conducted in Mexico. Fish samples were taken from a reservoir and placed under microscopy analysis for evaluation of the physical characteristics. Subsequently, surface morphology was assessed for the different fish colors. The health risks were assessed in terms of Hazard Index (HI) presenting Pb and Zn content of the fish which were above allowed limited level for both adults and children, prompting regulatory measures (Martinez-Tavera et al. 2021).

Due to increased plastic consumption and its consequent uncontrolled release into the environment, illegal plastic disposal has turned the polluting sites into vast contaminated hubs that pose health risks to the community and the ecosystem. Water filtration is an acceptable method for the solids particles removal and can as well be applied to MP (Na et al. 2021). Membrane technology under various degrees of filtration can as well remove the plastic particles however, keeping in mind the risks of membrane clogging (fouling). The presence and removal of MP from contaminated soils are reported by Cao et al. (2021). Microplastic experiments for removing plastic contaminants were conducted in wastewater treatment plants. The experiments were based on several stages of coagulation and flocculation, skimming, and creating high settled concentrated settled bulks (Rajala et al. 2020). Coagulation and flocculation methods, followed by settling, are common practices applied by several researchers and industrial experts (Rajala et al. 2020).The samples were treated with inorganic and organic coagulants which are typically used in treatment plants, including ferric chloride, poly-aluminum chloride, and polyamine. Alternatively, the MP could also be treated with aluminosilicate filter media (Shen et al. 2021). Skimming and concentrating the contaminating mass, primarily in open surface water bodies, allows to partially removal of the polluting sources (Skaf et al. 2020).Subsequently, all the accumulated plastic mass is transported to central recycling sites which apply the circular economy reuse principle (Santana et al. 2017; Shamsuyeva and Endres 2021; Charef 2022).

The main limit of filtration is the massive amounts of water that have to be separated. Coagulation-flocculation requires the use of polymers that are added to the water and turns out to be an extra contamination threat factor to the environment. Other development processes of MP removal are based on the organosilanes methods (Sturm et al. 2021; Bandl et al. 2021). The organ silane methods are executed by adding special constituents which thicken the MP pollutants layers and subsequently dissociate them. In this method, the effect of the polarity of microplastics on removal efficiency was considered. The efficiency is also affected by water composition, pollutants characteristics, and environmental temperature. However, the organic properties of organosilanes can be adjusted to diverse types of polymers. For example, a screw cap system was examined for its MP release potential (Giese et al. 2021). In this study, the concentration of the MP (≥10 μm) was determined in reusable polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottles with polypropylene (PP) caps and polyethylene (PE) seals after opening and closing of the bottles several times. The contents of the bottles were then filtered onto a silicon filter after opening. The inside of the bottles and the caps were rinsed with filtered water. The total Si filter area was analyzed by the Raman Micro-Spectroscopy method, allowing to take accurate observations (Khosroshahi et al. 2017).

A substantial number of studies were conducted regarding the toxic effects of the pollutants, primarily for drinking waters (Sarkar et al. 2021).A field study conducted in India evaluated the presence of microplastics during different treatment stages of the plants for removal of the particles using pulse clarification technology. The experiments indicated a higher removal efficiency when applying the pulse clarification (85%) over sand filtration (63%) (Sarkar et al. 2021).

5.1 General

Three dimensions (3D) printing is a technical process in which solid objects are "printed" by inserting various layers consecutively to generate the forms designed by a computer-aided design (CAD) procedure (Favero et al. 2017; Mikolajczyk et al. 2019). Methods of production are based primarily on Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM), known also as Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF). Assorted studies have observed 3D printers emitting ultrafine particles and volatile organic compounds (VOCs). Filament extruders for 3D printers (also known as additive manufacturing - AM) can now be found on market shelves for utilization in various fields of application (Tegenov et al. 2019; Barone et al. 2019; Lopes et al. 2020; Browne et al. 2020).The abundance of 3D desktop systems that are available on the market allows potential consumers to select the best devices that will best serve their needs. The main advantage of using 3D printers is the fast production of the unique elements and can be applied for manufacturing prototypes tools for industry, agriculture, and other private uses. In addition, medical demands have enhanced the biological use of 3D printers (bioprinting) (Mohammed 2016; Kitamori et al. 2019).

5.2 Technologies of Manufacturing 3D Printers

There are several technologies utilized to manufacture 3D printers. Among the available technologies are Stereolithography (SLA) and Digital Light Processing (DLP) which are based on solidifying the emulsion, utilizing various light sources (Mohammed 2016)comprised frequently of UV and laser beams. Noticeably, the printing speed of DLP 3D printers is much faster as compared to SLA 3D printers (Gross et al. 2014; Stansbury and Idacavage 2016).One of the major features of 3D printer technology is the motivation to reuse diverse types of marginal materials (Whitaker 2014). For example, in the etching industry, all wasted materials were accumulated and turned into a reused solid material (Schubert et al. 2014).

An additional method is powder bed fusion (Yin et al. 2019; Wencke et al. 2022). The powder melting material is distributed by applying thermic energy (laser; electronic beam) on parts of the selective surface area. Successively and automatically the powder is added to the surface area. In addition, an ink-jet printing component that is remarkably like the 2D printing appliances is utilized. The ink is dried by implementing a special light beam. Also is popular the fused modeling method (FDM), which is based on using special-purpose nozzles (diameter range from 1.75 mm to 3.0 mm). The nozzle is traveling in the X-Y plane to generate a thin layer on the printer surface which is called "bed". After every run, a thin layer is created in the Z axes and a 3D dimension layer is generated (Mohammed 2016). Currently, FDM technology is primary applied in the industry. The great advantage of 3D printing is the quick production of prototypes appliances for industry, manufacturing medical devices, and other daily domestic tools (Mohammed 2016). The market is mainly focused on production and implementing the technology of additive manufacturing (AM), despite the trend of 3D printing (Parupelli and Desai 2019).Several manufacturing commercial companies are active on the market such as Stratasys (Minnesota, US), 3D Systems (US), Protolabs (Minnesota, US), and X-jet (Israel).

One of the main problems of 3D printer manufacturing is nozzle clogging which depends on the composition of the materials passing via the system and the temperature of the fluid injected into it (Tegenov et al. 2018; Lambos et al. 2020). Other specified drawbacks of 3D printers include the associated discharge of toxic elements such as alcohol and other components released to the atmosphere, causing air pollution nuisances (Byrley et al. 2020; Rodríguez-Hern et al. 2020).

5.3 Plastic Bottles Recycling

The reuse of plastic bottles as raw materials for producing new products is a vital and promising strategy for reducing the need for fossil resources to protect the global environment and to demonstrate the importance of conserving energy and materials (Mansour et al. 2015). It is also a suitable example of the circular economy (CE) principle. During 2016, only around 7% of plastic bottles were collected and remanufactured into new bottles and other products. One of the problems associated with plastic bottle recycling is their distinct color and consequently the related value. It is conceivable to classify the plastic bottles according to the color sorted by applying image processing and other methods (Wang et al. 2019; Liu et al. 2021). The method of image processing works relatively satisfactory unless the bottle still includes the attached caps and labels on top of the bottle or in the middle of it, respectively. Frequently, it results in incorrect identification during the classification process.

The materials from which the original bottles are produced are important as well. The polymers are of different qualities and include recycled PET (RPET), recycled woven plastic sack wastes (RWS),and recycled aggregate concrete (RAC) (Bishop et al. 2020). Currently, the tendency is to use aggregates belonging to the construction and demolition waste (CDW) group which causes highest environmental problems (Bui et al. 2018). Cooper and his colleagues (Cooper et al. 2011) compare various materials used to manufacture handy bottles. The materials examined include several plastic components, stainless steel, and aluminum. For advertisement purposes, the bottles were of distinct colors (Sood and Pradhan 2020). The colors commonly consist of various Bisphenols A (BPA) which are synthetic, high production volume chemicals (Banaderakhshan et al. 2022). The BPA synthetic elements consist, to some extent, of toxic materials and need special attention when reused (Banaderakhshan et al. 2022).

The circular economy (CE) was applied for assessing the overall cost-effectiveness of inspiring an adequate policy of trashed bottle reuse (Marrucci et al. 2021; Johansen et al. 2022). The idea is to develop a series of indicators that will augment reuse options of wasted materials (Lonca et al. 2020). The consequence is the development of advanced strategy along with emerging of new commercial companies that improve the material loop cycle along with diminishing environmental contamination.

In recent years, FDM technology has been expanding as it allows to manufacture prototypes products in various industrial areas. The AM technology on the other hand is capable to produce mini samples in relatively short times. The market tends to adopt AM technology subject to lean production (Cagnetti et al. 2021). The raw material for FDM 3D printers includes an extensive list (Table 1).

Table 1

Potential raw material for 3D manufacturing (Novakova-Marcincinova and Novak-Marcincin 2014)

Type of Material	Material Characteristics
ABS-Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene	A stable thermoplastic material that is not sensitive to temperature changes and rigid for a long time
ABSplus	A stable plastics material. Unyielding under time standard ABS
ABS-M30	More rigid than ABS in the range of 20% to 70%; Tolerant to tension
ABS-M30i	ideal plastics for packing medical staff and food
PC Thermoplastic (Polycarbonate)	Most popular in the thermoplastic raw materials. Sustainable in high temperatures
PC-ISO	Ideal plastics for medical and other sterile packaging
PPSF/PPSU Thermoplastic (Polyphenylsulfone)	A sustainable raw material resistance to high temperatures
PC-ABS	Popular material made of PC and ABS; Incredibly good mechanical properties
FDM Thermoplastic Material- ULTEM 9085	Raw material developed for the space industry, sustainable against burning

Annual consumption of plastic materials used for manufacturing various containers and bottles products around the world has quickly increased from about 1.5 million tons in 1950 to around 380 million tons in 2015 (Foschi and Bonoli 2019). The demand for bottles has led to the emergence of various issues, such as resource depletion (plastic and its derivative) and environmental pollution due to plastic uncontrolled dumping to environmental sites (Wang et al. 2019). The most popular plastic material is PET, which is widely used for bottles, containers and wrapping materials of food. There will probably be an increase of 25%, namely of about half the trillion metric tons of the current units towards the year 2025. In order to diminish manufacturing costs, to meet worldwide depletion of materials, to reduce the demands for plastic, and to have a better environment, various recycling policy materials are developed. This work focuses on the recycling of plastic bottles for 3D homemade printers and is subject to economic considerations (Bui et al. 2018; Abrokwah et al. 2020).

The main idea behind this manuscript is to reuse most of the residual and discarded plastic materials as the "new" sources for other appliances (circular economy). The option of low-cost desktop size 3D printers has increased due to their easy availability and due to their ability to print exact specifications based on CAD drawings theories (Bodein et al. 2014; Mikolajczyk et al. 2019; Khaledi et al., 2019). Their availability to non-industrial systems (offices and homes) may create a better environment for 3D printers using refuse materials (Gujre et al. 2021). However, manufacturing with selected contamination materials is associated with health and environmental risks. If 3D printers are becoming accessible and widely used in professional and personal applications, it will lead to the production of other appliances and will probably amend health effects and indoor air quality.

The other purpose of this work is to propose measures to minimize the adverse effects of plastic on the environment. Mitigation of environmental nuisance can be achieved by decreasing the unfavorable effects of residual dumped bottles, damages to the soil, air, and fisheries, and improving the environment scenes. An economic assessment of the related value of the environment is presented.

7.1 General

The awareness of plastic pollution has progressed in terms of providing solutions and recycling options. The recognition is mainly expressed by the approach to plastic bottle recycling as indicated by the numerous collection methods and facilities located in main sites in central places. Subsequently, the used bottles are transported to recycling centers, where they are washed, rinsed, shredded into tiny particles, and reused as raw materials for another cycle of manufacturing. Various methods have been proposed and implemented for getting rid of the residual plastics material. However, a different approach is adopted in this work. Residual plastic makes up around 20% of the total amount of the worldwide wastes. The other main wastes components consist of 34 % residual leftover food and 24 % paper and cardboard. The article presents considerations referring to the possibilities of using 3D printing technology for manufacturing prototypes of innovative solutions for the environmental pollution (Zontek et al. 2017; Mikolajczyk et al. 2019). The bottle wastes in Israel consists of about 1.6x10⁹ units/year, weighing approximately 70x10³ metric tons. Most plastic bottles are 1.5 L in size and made of PET. Often, the bottle material is colorless, with a weight range between 35 and 45 g/bottle (empty). Usually, the bottom part (used to stabilize the bottle standing) is relatively rigid and is hardly acceptable at this stage for homemade 3D printer manufacturing. Removal of the bottom framework is estimated to reduce the bottle weight by 15% to 20%. In the framework of this study, a sample of fifty bottles for weight assessment was collected from nearby trash. The resulting mean weight is 41.5 g/bottle with a standard deviation of 2.16 g/bottle (empty). Finally, the weight of the source raw material for new manufacturing printers was 33.2 g/bottle [41.5(1-0.2) = 33.2 g for 1.5 L/bottle without the bottom stabilizer and the locking plug]. It allows approximately 50-million-ton plastic to be reused (consisting of PET species), equivalent to around recycled 1.65x10⁹ plastic bottles per year (approximately 70x10³ metric tons). Currently, the most acceptable manufacturing bottle method is the Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM). Production is based on several stages as follows (Figure 2):

(a) The CAD software was implemented. It is based on additive manufacturing which is a simulation of a dynamic approach to this technology. Consequently, according to this approach, a series of horizontal layers is manufactured producing the track of raw data for printing. Subsequently, the mass layers piled up and passed to the memorial card for getting a linear communication (Dudek 2013).

(b) The extruder pushes the raw material into the heating block. The heating block contains a temperature sensor, allowing it to warm and fuse at the required temperature. The raw material accurately emerges while the printing head is moving in the X-Y plane creating the designed form. After creating a layer, the head printing goes up to the required Z level to complete the form.

(d) The heating is the stage in which the raw material is inserted into the block and reaches "half fusion". A non-clogging nozzle is assembled at the outlet of the heating block. Particular care has to be paid to the operation conditions of the nozzle in order to minimize the clogging risks (Tegenov et al. 2018). The movement of the X-Y plane and subsequently to the Z plane (height) is maintained by engines and strips. A cooling system is connected at the outlet "printing bed" (Figure 2).

7.2 Manufacturing Cost

In order to manufacture 3D prototype printers, the Anet-A8 was purchased (Kah et al. 2021). The framework of the Anet-A8 printer included the following components (Figure 3):

1) An acrylic framework.

2) The Z axes are constructed of two long screws that allow them to move up and down.

3) The Y axes are built on a surface printing area and connected to a ribbon that is operated by a machine.

4) The extruder and hot end are located on the X-axes.

5) The X-axes consist of two rods that are connected to a linear bearing and on it are installed the extruder and the hot end (Figure 3).

6) An energy supply device providing electricity at 12 volts is attached.

7) A control panel is attached allowing connection to a computer.

8) A screen is connected to the upper part for control of the operation conditions.

Cost of production includes various components which incorporate the following (Peng and Sun, 2017): (i) the manufacturing device; (ii) processing of raw materials (the dumped bottles); (iii) collection of residual bottles; (iv) heating of the various parts of the manufacturing device (electricity demand).

It can be assumed that the cost of manufacturing conventional printers vs. the porotype 3D printer that is based on residual bottle sources is similar. The main difference between the two related products is the demand for the required energy for manufacturing. Also, one can assume that the raw materials of the prototype printer are of negligible costs and the manufacturing duration are almost the same as for the conventional ones. Collection of dumped bottles also hold for conventional ones, thus the expenses of production, besides the energy demand, are remarkably similar. Although the printing quality of the "bottle printers" is to some extent lower, it is worthwhile to use the "extra left behind" materials. A comparison of some items printed using residual trashed bottles is given in Table 2. Each bottle that will be used for manufacturing 3D printers, of around 41.5 gr. of PET, will be a kind of ecological saving. Of it around 20% has to be subtracted due to the unused rigid lower stabilizing part of the bottle, a suggestion for bottles to be manufactured without this part. An example of the product a home-made printer is given in Figure 4.

Table 2

Cost-saving due to use of bottle raw material (no cost) and energy demand for production

Item	Weight, gr.	Printing duration, hr.	Row material cost, $	*Energy cost, $/kWh**	Market cost, $	Saving due to "bottle" raw material printer, $/unit
Protection for I-phone 11	37	4.87	0.92	0.189	5.57	5.38
Plastic seal for plastic bags	11	1.53	0.28	0.058	1.36	1.30
External lock for a door	46	7.35	1.15	0.287	2.79	2.51
Towel hanger	4	0.70	0.10	0.028	2.37	2.34
Swedish ranch	20	2.87	0.50	0.111	9.61	9.49
A backgammon part	3	0.52	0.08	0.019	1.37	1.35
A holding for blotting-paper	34	5.13	0.85	0.200	10.70	10.52
A Chess soldier	8	1.32	0.20	0.050	1.37	1.32

* Only energy cost was considered for the analysis. All other factors for manufacturing are the same

The longevity of printers is commonly up to three years. However, all life-spans of most of the printers depended on the number of pages printed per week (Figure 5). The larger the number of prints per week the longer is the longevity of the printers. Consequently, the economic analysis is based on taking present costs and expenses of all printers’ components . If some of the component costs are exaggerated, one can consider them as contingency expenses in the overall analysis. Indirectly the analysis of printers production based on trash bottles demonstrates the value of the environment to the public.

Most of the microscopic solid and/or liquid matter in the form of plastic that is discarded to the atmosphere, surface waters and soils can be considered harmful as an MP pollutant. One way to solve the environmental contamination is to collect and shred plastic bottles and other plastic made containers for use as raw material for other cycles of production such as manufacturing 3D home printers and other similar devices. That technology will enhance a new era for other plastic residual materials and inspire applying advanced approaches for further development and protecting the environment.

The preliminary economic analysis illustrates the option of reusing the shredded raw plastic materials of residual bottles (and other appliances) for manufacturing homemade printers. The work focuses on the option of recycling microplastics for producing a new series of products. It depends primarily on the general expertise querying which kind of new product tools to produce and what is the vision of manufacturing them. The preliminary economic assessment shows the advantages of current options along with maintaining clean environment. However, even if the economic analysis shows marginal benefits, the main idea is to keep the environment clean and reuse the raw material again.

If one can produce printers from residual bottles, it means that there are numerous options to produce a series of products. There are however, two primary problems: (i) collecting and separating the discarded bottles from the general trash, and; (ii) having good ideas to manufacture new products that keep the environment clean and sustainable for the next generations.

Acknoledgements

The authors are indebted to vauable comments provided by the anonimious referees.

Conflicts of Interests

There is no conflicts of interests in the above paper.

Financial Support

No exteranl financial support was used.

Ethical Approval

No ethical issues were encountered in current work.

Consent to Participate

All contributing authors agreed to the content and style of the manuscript.

Consent to Publish

All participants authors agreed to publish the manuscript in the Environmental Science and Pollution Research.

Authors Contributions

Itay Yair was responsible for collecting of the discarded bottles and building the prototypes 3D printers.

Erez Cohen was responsible as well for the construction of the protypes 3D printers.

Gideon Oron was behind the entire idea and preparing current manuscript.

Availability of Data and Materials

No official data and/or specific can be provided.

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Converting Plastic Nuisance into a Valuable Resource: Reuse of Residual Plastic Bottles for Manufacturing (3D) Home Printers Under Economic and Improved Environmental Considerations

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Abstract

Figures

1. Introduction

2. Main Processing Procedures of Plastic Appliances

3. Environment Contamination with Plastic

3.5. Effect of Residuals Micro Plastic on Health

4. Plastic Pollution Removal and Proposed Solutions

5. Printing in Three Dimensions

6. The Purpose of the Study

7. Material and Methods

8. Conclusions

Declarations

References

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