How the biomechanical measures can incorporate climate change adaptation into disaster risk reduction and ecosystem sustainability

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-2219223/v1

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How the biomechanical measures can incorporate climate change adaptation into disaster risk reduction and ecosystem sustainability

https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-2219223/v1

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published 02 Apr, 2024

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Climate change as an eminent driver of global environmental changes has adversely affected the various dimensions of human life, natural resources, and in particular the flow regimes over the last couple of decades. This study explored the pathways to obtain ecosystem stability and regulate natural processes through incorporating climate change adaptation measures into disaster risk reduction. Accordingly, the hydrological behavior of almost two adjacent similar basins (paired catchments) was assessed in terms of implemented biomechanical measures that served as climate adaptation strategies. The available water stage time series recorded by OTT devices were applied to evaluate the effectiveness of the adaptation measures. Results revealed that the constructed check dams along with the intensified vegetation cover majorly regulated the process of surface runoff generation and its transportation to downstream. The peak flow of 53 and 31 cm were shown across the Control and Treatment catchments, without and with the conservation measures, respectively. The difference in peak flow implies the high contribution of the Control catchment (approximately 41.5%) in surface runoff provision service and flood in particular. Also, the time to peak in the Treatment catchment was 3 times higher than the Control catchment where they touched their own peak 35 and 50 minutes after the rain started, respectively. The findings suggest that biomechanical measures successfully regulated the surface runoff generation which in turn increased the stability of soil to erosion. Therefore, the constructed measures would be strongly recommended as climate mitigation strategies to achieve regional low-impact development as well as environmental sustainability.

Climate change

adaptation techniques

Disaster risk reduction

Flood control

Paired Catchments

Climate change along with extensive land use changes have a profound impact on human societies and ecosystem sustainability (Li et al., 2005, Shaw et al. 2010; Shirmohammadi et al. 2020a). Climate change through fluctuations in temperature and precipitation patterns imposes new anomalies on the hydrological cycle and its components (Samarasinghe et al., 2022). It is expected that the precipitation concentrated in a shorter period by fewer rainy days and longer dry periods but it wouldn’t result in a significant change in mean annual rainfall while heavy rainfall events will become more frequent (Chakrabarti 2010; Shaw et al. 2010). Decreasing the quantity and quality of the available freshwater resources, an indispensable component of livelihood maintenance, would therefore be the most formidable consequence of climate change (Chakrabarti 2010; Shirmohammadi et al. 2020). Hence, maintaining the balance between water supply and demand is essential for the sustainable development of a regional economy and society (Zhu et al., 2022). The evidence has shown that the affected regions by climate change along with population growth have increased, for instance, the affected region by climate change in South Asia is expected to increase from 36.4 in 1995 to 38.6 in 2025 million km2 (Alcamo et al. 2000). Such a condition would result in strong conflicts and competition among stakeholders mainly in the basins already are under severe and growing water shortage and stress (Zarghami et al. 2011). Climate change due to its unknown nature and intractable challenges is expected to impose negative effects without adaptation and mitigation strategies (Mohamed Salih 2009). Since human and natural systems are completely vulnerable, understanding the pathways that might affect these systems by climate as well as the nature of risks is important. Accordingly, capacity building in the government and community sectors to deal with climate change can considerably be addressed many of the adverse influences of climate change.

Disasters resulting from a complicated interaction between climate change, anthropogenic activities and natural systems occur once the balance is destroyed. Therefore, the magnitude of risk is directly dependent on the vulnerability of people and their exposure to the hazard as well as the degree to which the communities contributed to risk reduction activities (Uitto and Shaw 2006). Increasing concerns regarding the augmented population and natural events such as climate change, long-standing droughts and floods, in terms of ecosystem delivery services, made the societies find more about adaptation and mitigation strategies. Today, the flash floods caused by climate change anomalies have become one of the newest challenges facing mankind which has been blamed for the majority of casualties, economic collapse, and migration, regional and international conflicts.

The effects of biomechanical measures on runoff generation and soil erosion were assessed by Hartman et al. (2016) as the restoration techniques to enhance water security and increase grazing stability in Bolivian Andes. Their results revealed that check dams have intensified vegetation cover and increased the water supply along with the other erosion control structures that have increased greenness across the basin. An extremely significant decrease in the annual sediment load was reported by Zhang et al. (2022) in the Hekou-Longmen Region of the Yellow River due to the biomechanical measures (check dams and vegetation) while there seen no significant decrease in annual precipitation. The mechanical treatment (check dams) is expected to decrease the sediment yield by 4–52% under different development strategies (Tang et al., 2020). The forest effects on the function of soil and water conservation enhanced through vegetation intensification which decreased runoff and soil erosion (Zhang et al., 2014). Mechanical measures (check dams) alone reduced the region runoff and sediment load respectively by 12 and 11.7% while vegetation intensification showed a substantial decrease in runoff and sediment load by 20.7 and 53.2%, respectively (Li et al., 2019). Zhao et al. (2017) studied the individual contribution of both mechanical structure (check dams) and vegetation intensification on sediment yield at the Huangfuchuan Basin in China. Their results suggest the higher contribution of constructed check dams on sediment yield than the vegetation intensification by 31.4% and 51.9%, respectively. The effectiveness of the check dams on the flood and erosion dynamic processes was assessed by Yuan et al. (2019) at the Wangmaogou watershed. They found that the dams are effective mitigation measures for the flood where they could considerably reduce flood properties mainly flood peak and volume by 65.34% and 58.67%, respectively. According to Yuan et al. (2022), the constructed check dams has effectively influenced the hydrological response of the basin where the lag time to generation, lag to peak and lag to end of runoff were increased at the treatment basin outlet in the loess Plateau catchment. Yazdi et al. (2018) simulated the optimum size, shape and number of check dams using the coupled HEC-HMS-NSDE (non-dominated sorting differential evolution) approach to mitigate floods in Iran. Minimizing the investment cost and flood peak discharge along with maximizing the time to peak discharge were the primary objectives of this study. Their cost-effect design was overall found beneficiary where it decreased peak discharge and increased the time to peak approximately 54 and 82% corresponding to 2-yr, 5-yr and 10-yr flood return period scenarios. The majority of reviewed literature accomplished in the Loess Plateau of China over the recent years where almost all of the concluded the considerable effects of check dams and restored vegetation cover on the hydrological process mainly runoff properties and soil erosion.

To explore the effectiveness of those constructed measures in a given region, they should be examined and validated. One of the most suitable region to assess such effectiveness is the paired catchments which come from almost similar geographical and biophysical characteristics. Maintaining the balance between water demand and supply is a critical issue in terms of check dam construction along with vegetation restoration plans which should be precisely assessed and controlled. This study aimed to examine the efficiency of biomechanical measures mainly check dams and intensified vegetation to mitigate climate change concerning surface runoff generation and flood control in the semi-arid basin.

2.1. Study area

To assess the efficiency of the best management practices in Iran, 11 paired catchments were uniformly established across the country. Capturing natural processes and tradeoffs in the real world and pathways to control the surface runoff generation, enhance the groundwater systems and vegetation cover support along with soil conservation were the primary targets. The plausible results including from trend analysis across the mentioned sections will therefore apply to figure pathways to support the sustainability of a regional economy, ecology and society. The Heris Paired Catchments exemplify dynamics across a larger region located in Maragheh city territory, the southwest altitudes of Sahand Mountain, north-western of Iran served as case study in this research (Figure. 1). The larger catchment, named the Representative, includes Heris Paired Catchments within. The Heris Paired Catchments involve two catchments with similar features in terms of topographic characteristics, climate condition, geographic location, and vegetation cover where the Treatment catchment is subjected to best management practice while the Control one remained under human activities.

The main topographic information of the studied catchments is presented in Table 1. Three hydrologic stations are embedded at the outlet of the individual catchments to record the water stage corresponding to the individual rainfall events (Fig. 1). Moreover, the catchments, paired catchments, benefit three sites to capture the soil erosion and each of them includes three Wishmayer-smith standard plots (Fig. 1). The soil loss from the ground surface along with the generated runoff volume are the two assessing parameters within the triple sites.

Table 1

Main topographic characteristics of the studied catchments
Factor		Catchment
Factor		Treatment	Control
Area (ha)		185	144
Elevation (m)	max	2350	2300
Elevation (m)	min	1939	1939
Perimeter (m)		8175	7058
Mean slope (%)		18.58	18.65
Main stream length (m)		2533.28	2081.75
Drainage Density (km/km²)		6.56	6

Table 2

The area of various land-use types across the basins
Land use	Area
	Treatment		Control
	(ha)	(%)	(ha)	(%)
Orchards	5.33	2.97	3.56	2.51
Dry farming	1.45	0.81	9.83	6.94
Rangeland	151.79	84.72	108.75	76.82
Bare soil	15.5	8.65	17.8	12.57
Flood path	5.1	2.85	1.62	1.14

Figure 2 illustrates the monthly precipitation distribution in the Heris Paired Catchments. According to this figure, the maximum and minimum precipitation occurred in February and August, respectively. According to the meteorological statistics obtained from the meteorological station, located adjusted to the basins as presented in Fig. 1, the catchments received approximately 430 mm annual average precipitation.

The land use map, developed by Google Earth Engine across the Heris Paired catchments in 2020, was presented in Fig. 3. Five land use types including orchards, dry farming, bare soil, flood path, and rangeland were detected across the catchments. According to this figure, the rangeland is the stretched land use types across both catchments where it covers approximately 84.72% and 76.82% of the whole Treatment and Control catchments, respectively (Table. 2). It is worth noting that socioeconomic development is currently undertaken in both catchments simultaneously.

2.2. Data

A distinct precipitation event time series along with the corresponding hydrologic captured data were used to assess the hydrologic behavior of the catchments and at the same time the effectiveness of the constructed biomechanical measures (check dams and vegetation intensification). Accordingly, the hydrologic response of the catchments was assessed related to the recently occurred precipitation event. Therefore, we applied precipitation data from the Heris meteorological station which was recorded regularly within 10-minute intervals. It is worth noting that the other 14 climatic parameters such as wind properties, temperature, soil moisture, air pressure, pan evaporation, and radiation rate are also recorded at this station. All the devices embedded in the meteorological station are electrical and manufactured by Lambrecht Company, Germany. Table 3 presents the properties of the studied precipitation event in terms of its intensity, duration, and amount.

Table 3

Properties of the studied precipitation event in terms of its intensity, duration, and amount
Date	Time (min)	Precipitation (mm)
08.01.2021	00:50 am	0.4
08.01.2021	01:00 am	0.3
08.01.2021	01:10 am	5.5
08.01.2021	01:20 am	2.3
08.01.2021	01:30 am	1.7
		10.2

The recorded water stages at the Treatment and Control hydrologic stations were the second group of the applied data in this study. Since the biological components associated with the employed management approaches at a basin determine the basin potential in provisioning water and the volume of water that reaches the outlet (Shirmohammadi et al. 2020a), the recorded water stages data across the outlet of the catchments were considered as an indicator to measure the effectiveness of the best management practices in the Treatment basin compared to the control one which represents the catchment without management measures. However, the climatic condition is considerably drives the hydrologic process, the catchments here received the same precipitation because of their small area and similar geographic location. Therefore, the recorded water stage within 5-minute intervals across the hydrologic stations was applied as the indicator in this study. Moreover, we assessed the efficiency of the electronic stream gauges in capturing the hydrological behavior of catchments in surface runoff generation under a distinct precipitation event.

2.3. Paired catchments

The application of data-driven techniques is usually time-consuming and often requires a deep understanding of human-nature interactions as well as the hydrologic, biophysical, and topographical processes (Van Loon et al. 2019). These methods are developed to give an indication of pathways that the natural systems work and human activities affect their functions using limited data. To address these challenges, paired catchments approach has been developed to be connected with the observation-based methods. The paired catchments approach involves two catchments with similar features in terms of topographic characteristics, climate condition, geographic location, and vegetation cover where one of them is subjected to treatment while the other one remains under human activities. These methods enable researchers to assess the impacts of human-induced activities as well as the different management approaches on ecosystem delivery services (Zhao et al., 2017). This way the plausible mitigation measures will be practically accomplished and studied, therefore, it would result in adaptation strategies (Yazdi et al., 2018). For instance, hydrological analysis through paired catchments enables us to assess the effects of any disturbance in the flow regime (Bosch and Hewlett 1982; Li et al., 2019; Yuan et al., 2022) and soil erosion (Zhang et al., 2014; Yuan et al., 2019; Tang et al., 2020). This approach has been widely used to assess the effects of human-induced activities and treatment on hydrology (Best et al. 2003; Brown et al. 2005; Brown et al. 2013; Folton et al. 2015; Van Loon et al. 2019; Li et al., 2019; Yuan et al., 2022). Therefore, using paired catchment approach will likely result in the safe design, sustainable development, and support ecosystem services, maintain water supply and demand, soil conservation, enhanced groundwater system, flood control and figure out how current management approaches will hold up during natural disasters. It becomes exceedingly important in recent years since stream flow variation depicts the ecosystem's health, and low-impact and sustainable development (Shirmohammadi et al. 2020a,b).

Accordingly, the paired catchments have primarily developed in Iran to assess human activities as well as treatment effects on hydrology and soil erosion. Totally, 11 paired catchments in Iran were settled up in a way that they could be a good exemplifier of the whole country. While the challenges are still reminded mainly in terms of hydrology-related measurements, this study opened a new approach regarding the importance of the paired catchments. Accordingly, we went beyond looking at how the check dams along with vegetation intensification can incorporate disaster risk reduction and subsequently ecosystem sustainability into climate change adaptation.

2.4. Biomechanical measures

Assessing the effects of best management practices and approaches concerning ecosystem delivery services was the primary purpose of paired catchments establishment in Iran. Due to the extensive land use and climate changes the use of paired catchment will be an important approach to assess different mitigation strategies to fulfill human well-being and ecosystem sustainability simultaneously. Biomechanical measures including check dams along with vegetation intensification were the two assessed mitigation strategies to deal with the surface runoff generation mainly flood. It is worth noting that this assessment was conducted across paired catchments where one of them was subjected to treatment while the other one remained under human activities which were named as Treatment and Control catchments in this study, respectively. Since the Heris Paired Catchment is not calibrated yet, therefore the check dams along with vegetation intensification were the two accomplished measures in the Treatment catchment. Figure 4 shows the schematic comparison of the Heris Paired Catchments in terms of the implemented check dams in the Treatment catchment versus the Control one.

Check dams were constructed to deliver generated surface flow by a delay at the basin outlet however they probably reduced sediment load into the drainage system.

This study was established to explore how biomechanical measures can incorporate climate change adaptation strategies into disaster risk reduction and regional sustainability in both human and natural systems. Accordingly, we assessed a paired catchments hydrological response in terms of an individual rainstorm to figure the effectiveness of check dams along with intensified vegetation cover on stream flow characteristics, time to peak and peak flow in particular. As described above, the hydrological response was examined concerning the 10.2 mm precipitation that occurred in 50 minutes. Figure 5 shows the recorded water stages at the outlet of the studied catchments where the data lager are embedded inside of the flume at the hydrologic stations.

Figure 5.

According to Fig. 5, a higher water stage was shown in the Control catchment than the water stage in Treatment one where the catchments experienced 53 and 31 cm as their peak, respectively. It implies that the Control basin contributed approximately 41.5% more than the Treatment one in surface runoff generation while the Treatment catchment benefits from a larger surface area (approximately 41 ha). In contrast, the results showed that the time to peak in the Control basin was less than the time to peak in the Treatment one. These results suggest that the check dams considerably affected the flood corresponding to the individual rainfall event which are in accordance with the Wei et al., 2016 and Yazdi et al., 2018 findings.

Approximately a similar hydrological behavior was shown for the Representative catchment (the larger basin which includes both Control and Treatment catchments) and Control catchments (Fig. 5). It means that the Representative catchment response was majorly affected by the Control catchment than the Treatment one. Whereas the regular response was shown in the hydrological behavior of the Treatment catchment in terms of the same precipitation event. The slight difference in reaching the peak flow between the Representative and Control catchments can be attributed to the rapid hydrological response of the Control basin, which accordingly affected the time to the peak of the Representative catchment. The different hydrological behaviors across the two almost similar catchments (Control and Treatment) can be attributed to the implemented management measures in the Treatment catchment since those measures are the only distinct differences between the studied catchments (Tang et al., 2020; Li et al., 2019). Accordingly, the constructed check dams in the Treatment catchment along with intensified vegetation covers regulated the flow regime and consequently captures the sediment through the catchment drainage system. While the soil on slopes was controlled through biological operations which ultimately led to soil protection in steeper areas.

According to the results, the implemented management measures in the Treatment catchment, besides hydrological regulation and water conservation, also led to soil protection. Results revealed the effectiveness of management measures as mitigation strategies in disaster risk reduction. The implementation of those biomechanical measures in the larger areas will therefore be able to regulate flow regimes and therefore decrease corresponding offset damages through controlling plausible floods, enhancing the groundwater resources through intensifying water percolation, low-impact development, boosting regional economic and finally enhancing water supply to meet in increasing demand. Therefore, such operations not only can lead to socio-economic development but also would be an important option in achieving the goals of sustainable development and ecosystem stability.

To apply such constructions and measures elsewhere, particularly where the region is already suffering from water shortages or feeds an aquatic ecosystem downstream whose survival is extremely dependent on water supply upstream, considering the requisite environmental flow is of utmost importance. This way, only the amount of excess surface runoff that is usually out of reach and finally leads to human and financial losses is subjected to control. To achieve this, the hydrological behavior of the basin should be examined concerning different rainfall intensities with different return periods and updated plans that just have been designed based on constant climate conditions. Afterward, the results can be applied as adaptation strategies to climate change risk reduction in larger areas with similar climatic conditions that are prone to flooding and accordingly high human and financial losses.

A notable point regards the hydrological responses of studied basins is referring to their behavior for a few minutes after they touched their peak which altogether showed constant values. Despite the installation of electronic water level gauges at the outlet of the basins, it is shown that the ascending current was the only captured data. The descending current along with the flow duration was the missing components that were never captured. The field surveys revealed that the high sedimentation occurred upstream due to the erosion-sensitive formation which is prone to leaching with any low rainfall intensity. According to the flume structure, the opening rate of its feeding valve was determined directly by the transported amount of sediment specified when the constant values of the curves occurred. Therefore, the more sediment entrance, the constant height caused by the trapped water inside of the flume where the floater is embedded, happens soon. It is expected that the water stages may also be recorded for the low flow or the flows caused by low-intensity rainfall events. To address these challenges, installing new devices able to record flow and sediment rates correctly is extremely recommended.

Detecting the adaptation priority to mitigate climate change risks is considered an important aspect of society's response to climate change. While several studies have been accomplished on climate change to get the appropriate adaptation strategies, its linkages with disaster risk reduction have not cleared yet. Through the current study, we assessed how biomechanical measures could incorporate climate change adaptation into disaster risk reduction which outlined the decision-making challenges to mitigate climate change. According to the results, biomechanical measures were found as suitable strategies to mitigate climate change. The results revealed that establishing such methods would result in either flood control or water supply particularly, across the regions which water resources management is of great concern. This way, the process for the generation of the rapid surface flow was controlled and the possibility of flash floods at downstream was decreased. Therefore, applying the biomechanical measures across the regions like Maragheh city which is surrounded by orchards which mostly are fed by groundwater resources withdrawals is utmost of importance to support regional sustainable socio-economic development and ecosystem sustainability. Since surveys in the Urmia Lake region concluded that unsustainable development is the main driver of lake drying and shrinking, therefore, designing such measures would enhance threats to the lake's stability due to the decrease in the inflows into the lake even those measures would intensify the region's economic situation more effectively where a large number of stakeholders (local community) have majorly spent on the orchards. Therefore, ignoring the mitigation strategies would result in socio-economic collapse across the lake region. In conclusion, the mitigation method should be designed more cautiously to maintain the balance between water demand and supply.

While our results provide insight to understand how biomechanical measures can result in flood control, the threshold for these constructions along with the environmental flow is still unclear.

Acknowledgments: We would like to express our gratitude to the Iran Meteorological Organization (IRIMO) and Ministry of Energy for providing the historical record of the precipitation data used in this study.

Author contributions: Bagher Shirmohammadi: methodology development and writing the initial draft; Arash Malekian: mentorship and editing. Saeid Varamesh: data analysis; Javad Abdolahi, Saeed Shahbazikia and Mohammad Mohsenzadeh are contributed in data collection.

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Declarations

Conflict of interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest

Ethics approval: All authors have approved the manuscript

Consent for publication: All authors agree to submit the manuscript to the Natural Hazards Journal

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You are reading this latest preprint version

How the biomechanical measures can incorporate climate change adaptation into disaster risk reduction and ecosystem sustainability

Status:

Journal Publication

Version 1

Abstract

Figures

1. Introduction

2. Material And Methods

2.1. Study area

2.2. Data

2.3. Paired catchments

2.4. Biomechanical measures

3. Results And Discussion

4. Conclusion

Declarations

References

Status:

Journal Publication

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