Synthesis and characterization of N-doped porous carbon from chicken feathers for 3D printed electrode applications

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-2230929/v1

Download PDF

Article

Synthesis and characterization of N-doped porous carbon from chicken feathers for 3D printed electrode applications

https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-2230929/v1

This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License

Version 1

posted

You are reading this latest preprint version

In this study sustainable chicken feather waste was used as a precursor material to synthesize nitrogen doped porous carbon using a unique two step high temperature/pressure pyrolysis reaction. The synthesized carbon was further activated using potassium hydroxide. The activated carbon showed a surface area of 515.896 m²/g and pore volume of 0.607 cc/g. X-ray diffraction analysis confirmed that the activated carbon consisted of highly amorphous porous carbon compared to non-activated carbon. Raman spectroscopy revealed that the carbon consisted of highly disordered/defected sp³ hybridized carbon with an ID/IG ratio of 1.39. Nanoindentation results revealed that the biochar carbon had hardness and modulus of 0.153 GPa and 3.8 GPa respectively. Preliminary observations suggested feasibility in applying the carbon as a potential electrode material in a solid state supercapacitor application.

Physical sciences/Materials science/Materials for devices

Physical sciences/Chemistry

Physical sciences/Materials science

Physical sciences/Nanoscience and technology

Biochar activation

Nanoindentation

Graphitization

Pyrolysis

3D printing

electrode

In the recent decades, there has been a significant interest in activated carbon for wide- ranging application areas. To illustrate, activated carbon (AC) has been employed for the removal of unwanted materials from water and for the treatment of wastewater [[1][2][3]]. AC has also been used in the adsorption of carbon dioxide [[4][5]]. Another major application area for AC is in energy storage devices such as batteries and supercapacitors [[6][7][8][9]]. The recent years have seen considerable interest in sustainable materials and technologies for the manufacture of activated carbon. Towards this, there have been ongoing developments in the synthesis of AC from various waste materials. Some of the waste materials investigated till date include various types of bio-waste, and those related to food, plastic, among others [[10][11][12][13][14]]. With regards to bio-waste, both plants based, and animal-based materials have been employed to synthesize AC [[15][16][17][18][19]].

Among animal-based bio-waste materials, chicken feather waste is a widely available material. Millions of tons of unwanted chicken feather waste are disposed annually from poultry processing plants, contributing to environmental pollution [[20][21]]. Chicken feathers are composed majorly of keratin, which is a protein consisting of several amino acids linked by disulphide cross-linking bridge bond between cysteine [[22][23]]. Chicken feathers are particularly exciting as a precursor material due strong fibrous structure, inherent Nitrogen (N) doping and hollow structure which translates into porous carbon morphology making it an ideal choice for many applications [24]. Due to its properties and abundant availability, chicken feather fibers are being employed to synthesize carbon through pyrolysis [25, 26]. Chicken feather structure consists of semi-crystalline and crystalline regions, which makes its thermal decomposition an intricate process due to its tendency to melt below melting transition temperatures and inter and intramolecular crosslinking. Prior reports have commented on the complexity of chicken feather pyrolysis process [[27][28]]. There is scope for further work on the synthesis of AC from chicken feathers, and understanding the properties of the resulting AC.

In this work, chicken feathers were used as precursor material to synthesize activation carbon using high temperature/pressure pyrolysis reaction and activation by potassium hydroxide (KOH) via a carefully designed reaction process which is aimed at maintaining useful properties from the biomass as well as incorporating desirable characteristics in the resulting carbon. The process used in current work is a two-step method. In the first step, chicken feathers are carbonized by incremental pyrolysis under the action of high temperature and pressure, followed by graphitization. The second step is the impregnation of the biochar with the activating agent and subsequently activating the impregnated carbon. The synthesized activated carbon is completely characterized for its morphological, physical, chemical, and mechanical properties, which was never done before to the best of our knowledge. The feasibility of applying the synthesized carbon for potential applications as electrode material for energy storage application is also demonstrated.

2.1. Materials

Chicken feathers were procured from the poultry farm of Department of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences at Tuskegee University, Tuskegee, AL. No chickens were involved in this study. Poly (vinyl alcohol) (PVA) (87–90% hydrolyzed, 130k average MW), Analytical grade Potassium Hydroxide (KOH) pellets, Phosphoric acid (H₃PO₄) were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich Chemical, Allentown, PA.

2.2. Carbon Synthesis

Chicken feathers (CF) were first washed with detergent water three times to remove any external contaminates like dirt, mud, and blood. Then they were washed three times with distilled water to remove any chemical residues present on the fibers of the feathers. Then feathers were air dried for 24 hours under room temperature condition. The rachis of the feathers was removed from the vane fibers. Once only fiber sections of the feathers were obtained, they were ball milled for 3 hours to get chicken feather fiber powder. The obtained powder was sieved to 45µ to remove all macro size particles from the powder. The measured amount of powder (6 gm) was placed into a vertical reaction chamber of Ni-based superalloy high-pressure/temperature reactor (GSL-1100X-RC). The reactor was first purged continuously with nitrogen for more than an hour to remove any entrapped oxygen within the chamber then chamber was sealed and heated using a temperature-controlled furnace at ramp rate of 10°C/ min. A two-step heat treatment process was used as shown in Fig. 1. The first isothermal reaction at 230°C was intended to facilitate crosslinking of polymer chains in the keratin rich fiber whereas second isothermal reaction at 1100°C was carried out to carbonize the material at self-pressurized condition to promote graphitization. The pressure profile was also monitored and reported in Fig. 1. Once the carbon was produced, the reactor was allowed to cool down to room temperature by itself. The carbon thus produced (referred to as CF-Carbon) was further gently mortared to achieve uniform powder. The synthesis process of carbon is shown in Fig. 2.

2.3. Activation

The carbon was measured as 1.66 grams. Potassium Hydroxide (KOH) pellets was measured at a 3:1 ratio (KOH:carbon) to 4.98 grams. The 1.66 grams of carbon, 4.98 grams of KOH and 5 mL of distilled water was mixed in a small beaker and placed into a conventional oven to dry for 48 hours. After drying, the carbon was redeposited into the reactor, purged with nitrogen for 30 minutes, and heated to 1100° C for two hours at a rate of 20° C per minute. Once the reactor was cooled, the activated carbon was extracted and grounded to make it uniform. To neutralize the activated carbon, dilute hydrochloric acid (HCl) and at least 30 mL of distilled water was mixed. The activated carbon was deposited into the solution along with a magnetic stirrer and placed on a stir plate for 3 hours. The carbon was filtered and washed repeatedly with distilled water until neutral pH was achieved. The synthesized activated carbon was vacuum dried at 120°C overnight. This activated carbon is referred to as CF-KOH Carbon.

2.4. Characterization

X-ray diffraction

X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis was performed using a Panalytical Empyrean system with a Cu anode (λ = 1.54187Å), at 40 kV, 30 mA, and 1.2 kW. Cu K-beta reducing incident optic with 1/8° divergence slit and 1/2° anti-scatter slit was used. The Pixcel 3D detector was used in scanning line mode. The diffraction data for the carbon sample was collected in the 2θ range (10 − 70°) at a scan rate of 2°/min. [29]

Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy

Fourier transform infrared-attenuated total reflectance (FTIR-ATR) (Thermo Scientific Nicolet iS5) using 32 averaged scans and 4 cm^− 1 resolutions over a range of 4000–500 cm^− 1. FTIR studies were conducted to validate complete carbonization of CF carbon. Background spectra were taken in the empty chamber before measurements to eliminate the influence of water moisture and CO₂ in the air.[29]

Raman spectroscopy

Raman spectroscopy was done on the carbon using Thermo Scientific DXR Raman spectroscopy instrument to investigate the graphitization degree and to assess the graphitic and defected carbon. The Raman laser had an excitation wavelength of 785 nm. The spectrum was obtained in the range of 500 − 2500 cm^− 1 using a laser power of 5.0 mW.[29]

X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy

Using Phi Electronics, Inc., X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) tests were conducted on carbon to assess surface binding energies and the attachment of various functionalities. Versaprobe 5000 features a monochromatic Al X-ray source with a spot size of 100um and a power of 25W. Because the system includes dual charge neutralization, no adjustments to the peak positions were made. With a step size of 0.8eV and a pass energy of 187.85eV, survey scans were performed. With a 0.1eV step size and a pass energy of 23.5eV, high-resolution scans were performed.[30]

Textural Properties

Carbon textural properties were investigated using the NOVA2200e (Quantachrome, USA) surface area and pore size analyzer. All samples were vacuum degassed at 300°C overnight to remove volatiles. Nitrogen adsorption − desorption isotherms were obtained at 77 K and a partial pressure range of 0.05 − 0.99. Adsorption isotherms were used for the estimation of the BET surface area, volume, and pore size distribution. The BET surface area was calculated using a multipoint test in a partial pressure range of 0.05 − 0.3, and the micropore volume was estimated using nonlinear density functional theory (NDLFT). The total pore volume was measured at a partial pressure of 0.99.[29]

Microstructure and morphology analysis

The surface morphology of the synthesized carbon was investigated using JEOL JSM-7200F field emission scanning electron microscope (FESEM, JEOL USA). Prior to testing the samples were sputter coated with gold/palladium (Au/Pd) for 3 min at 10 mA using Hummer sputter coater to form a conductive surface. Microstructure analysis of biochar carbon was done using transmission electron microscope (TEM-Jeol 2010). Carbon was first dispersed in ethanol using ultrasonic bath and then dispensed on Cu grid and air dried. TEM analysis was conducted at an operating voltage of 200 kV.[29]

Mechanical testing

Using the continuous stiffness measurement, nanoindentation studies were carried out on AC carbon samples using an MTS Nanoindenter XP with a Berkovich diamond tip. The harmonic displacement target was set at 2 nm, and the testing frequency was 45 Hz. Each sample was indented using a 5 by 5 array of indents spaced 100 µm apart in the x and y directions to statistically represent the indentation data. Maximum load, maximum depth, final depth, and contact stiffness are the significant quantities that can be determined from the load-displacement curve, respectively. Hardness and elastic modulus of the synthesized carbon were calculated using the methodology described in section S2 in Supplementary Information.

2.5. Supercapacitor fabrication and testing

Super capacitor fabrication was done in the similar way as our previous work [31] solid electrolyte was prepared by mixing 4 g of PVA was added to 40 g of DI water, vigorously mixed in a hot plate at 70ºC until a clear homogeneous solution is achieved then 4.5 g of H₃PO₄ was added to the solution and mixed for 10 minutes. The solution was cast of a plastic surface and left at room temperature overnight to form solid electrolyte layer. Two grams of activated carbon was mixed with 3 ml of electrolyte solution (PVA/H₃PO₄) to form carbon paste, which is the main electrode material. The paste was fed to 10 cc syringe used as containers for 3D printer head it was connected to a nozzle with 0.8 mm diameter. Hyrel30M printer with SDS-10 syringe head was used for printing the carbon paste as electrodes. Electrode dimensions were, 10 mm X 10 mm X 0.5 mm. The printing was done with printer settings at 1.0 mm layer width, 0.25 mm layer thickness and 15 mm/s head speed using rectilinear infill. The electrodes were printed on a clean PET sheet allowed to dry overnight and assembled into device later. The device consisted of two 3D printed electrodes sandwiching a solid electrolyte layer. The schematic representation of device fabrication method is shown in Figure S1 (supplementary information). The energy performance of the supercapacitor was investigated by galvanostatic charge discharge (GCD) using an EZSTAT Pro potentiostat/galvanostat (Nuvant System Inc.). GCD curves were obtained at constant current of 2.5 mA and potential of 1 V. The resulting GCD curves were used to calculate device capacitance and specific capacitance using the equations listed in section S3 in Supplementary Information. Rheological studies were also performed on the activated carbon paste used to print the supercapacitor electrodes. These were done using a rheometer (TA Instruments AR-2000) equipped with 25 mm diameter parallel plates with an initial gap of 1000 µm. All measurements were preceded by a 1 min conditioning step at a constant shear rate of 0.1 (1/s) followed by an equilibration step for another 1 min. Steady state tests were done by varying the shear rate from 0.01–100 (1/s) and measuring the viscosity as a function of shear rate. A temperature of 50°C was maintained during the tests.[31]

TGA analysis revealed that the onset of decomposition began at 225°C using 5% reduction in weight and the maximum rate of decomposition was around 295°C, which was obtained from peak of derivative weight % curve. This means that the pyrolysis zone will be around 220 to 400°C (Fig. 3a). The isothermal heating during pyrolysis will promote crosslinking of bonds by reaction of amine-carboxyl side chain groups. During the first step of pyrolysis at 230°C the fibers are slowly crosslinking by formation of disulfide and isopeptide bonds.

The fibrous portion of the fibers (Fig. 3.a inset) which is the main source of keratin has to be retained by proper polymerization during pyrolysis. FTIR graph (Fig. 3.b) shows the various functional groups, which are characteristic to feather fibres primarily due of presence of proteins and amino acids. The peak near 3280cm^− 1 was due to N–H (amine) group from an amino acid from CF. The peak around 2925 cm^− 1 shows the C–H stretch. The peak at around 1650 cm^− 1 shows the C = C stretch. The peak near 1540 cm-1 shows the C = C bending. On the other hand, the peak at 1237 cm^− 1 related to C-O (carboxylic acid) originating mainly from amino acid of the feather fibre. In case of CF carbon after pyrolysis, it has been completely carbonized/aromatized because of which there is absence of any prominent surface functional groups.

XRD graphs (Fig. 4a) of CF carbon powder revealed that there was high degree of graphitization, which is evident from the sharp peaks at 2θ value of 29, 32 and 44 degrees which are reflections of graphitic peaks (JCPDS 41-1487). There were also some narrow peaks observed at 2θ value of 25 degrees that indicates amorphous carbon region with significant crystallinity. Thus, it can be understood that the carbon formed was a combination of both crystalline and amorphous carbons, which was confirmed by TEM images. The CF- carbon shows narrow peak before 24° due to high carbonization temperature but some amorphous nature. XRD patterns of activated carbon show two broad peaks at around 2θ of about 26° and 43.6° corresponding to the (002) and (100) plane reflection and reveal the increased amorphous nature of carbon materials upon activation. It can be attributed to increased degree of disorder (sp³ carbon) and porosity due to activation [24]. To further analyze carbon, Raman spectroscopy was employed. The graph obtained (Fig. 4.b.) represent partially resolved peaks centered around 1357 and 1590 cm^− 1 which corresponds to D and G characteristic bands, these peaks match well with the characteristics of amorphous carbon. The G band corresponds to sp² electronic configuration of graphitic carbon and D band corresponds to lattice distorted/ defected polyaromatic hydrocarbons. The broad narrow peak of G band relative to D band confirm the low degree of crystallinity, which was also supported by data from XRD. Further intensity ratio (ID/IG) which is indication of graphitic and structural order was 1.30, which is relatively low when compared to high graphitic carbons like carbon nanotubes and graphene but higher compared to N doped biomass derived carbon. Upon activation ID/IG value was around 1.39 which is indicative of increased sp³ hybridized carbon. Raman spectrum shows increase in disordered/defective carbon with increase in peak near D band after KOH activation [24]

TEM images revealed that there were areas of crystalline region within the bulk amorphous carbon region. The crystalline region consists of graphene like planes with dimension of less than 100nm (Fig. 5). TEM image of activated carbon shows a random distribution of micro- and mesopores. The grey and dark areas correspond to the pores and carbon matrix respectively. On comparison with non-activated carbon, it can be clearly observed that carbon is more disordered and had nano size pores. This kind of morphology increases pore volume which is very essential for electrochemical reactions. From SEM micrographs obtained it can be observed that the particles were of few tens of microns size, fibrous structure of the feather was retained after pyrolysis with irregular morphologies and some porosities (Fig. 5). The shiny nature of the carbon can be attributed to increase in crystallinity of the carbon confirmed by XRD analysis earlier. From SEM analysis, it can be observed that the carbon has become more amorphous with many irregular morphologies leading to increased surface area. The shiny clear morphology which was observed in not activated (neat) carbon is clearly missing after activation. The porous pattern with nano size morphologies leads to drastic increase in available surface area making it an ideal choice for electrode applications.

A detailed BET analysis as shown in Fig. 6, of neat and activated carbon using nitrogen adsorption-desorption curves was performed to study the specific area, pore volume, pore width and average pore size is summarized in Table 1. It was observed that KOH activation led to a larger surface area of 515.896 m²/g and improved pore volume of 0.607 cc/g when compared to those of neat carbon. The average pore size and pore width of AC was smaller compared to neat carbon. This is due to the action of KOH activation where K₂O tends to form and gets reduced to potassium. This leads to CO₂ gas releases that are responsible for formation of pores in the carbon. The surface area of the AC synthesized here is higher than some prior reports of chicken feather synthesized carbon where pyrolysis was done at 700°C and surface area was in the range of 18–74.5 m²/g after KOH activation [32]. It is lower than some other prior reports where carbonization of chicken feathers at 500°C and subsequent KOH activation yielded AC with a surface area of 1839 m²/g [33].

Table 1

Surface area and textural properties of biochar carbon
Property	CF- Carbon	CF- KOH Carbon
SSA (m²/g)	1.75	515.90
Avg Pore Size (nm)	6.5471	4.6201
Pore Volume (cc/g)	0.004	0.607
Pore Width (nm)	2.897	1.126
Total Pore Volume (cc/g)	0.01596 (< 145.5 nm)	0.667 (< 140.3nm)

Biochar carbon neat and activated using KOH were characterized for surface binding energies using the XPS technique as shown in Fig. 7a. It was revealed that KOH activation method improved the oxygen related functionalities. The XPS plot reveals the surface elemental composition of oxygen, carbon, nitrogen and O/N ratio obtained from XPS studies. It revealed that with activation there was a decrease in carbon content and an increase in oxygen content. O/N ratio which can be a good measure to look at available active sites revealed that highest O/N ratio of 3.66 was achieved for KOH treated samples. With activation amount of surface elemental carbon available decreased and oxygen content increased indicating oxidization of surface carbon, which is indicative that it greatly modified the carbon surface bonds. Upon comparison it can be observed that the amount of surface carbon reduced drastically for KOH activated compared to neat CF carbon as shown in Table 2. Figure 7b depicts a typical order of loading, holding, and unloading of a nanoindentation test. Each sample was subjected to numerous indentations providing many load vs displacement curves; however, average of these curves was utilized by the software to calculate mean hardness and modulus values. The harness and modulus values of biochar were reported 0.153 GPa and 3.8 GPa respectively.

Table 2

Elemental composition, O/N ratio of carbon neat and activated.
Sample	C(%)	O(%)	N(%)	Other	O/N
CF -Carbon	93.3	4.8	1.9	< 0.1	2.53
CF -KOH Carbon	68.0	22.3	6.1	3.6	3.66

The synthesized AC was employed to make a paste which was 3D printed to make supercapacitor electrodes. Rheology studies of the paste showed that its viscosity decreased with increasing shear rate, indicating shear-thinning behavior as shown in Fig. 8a. Shear thinning behavior is a desired property for direct ink 3D printing of paste kind of materials, which allows easy flow of ink upon application of force via extrusion system. SEM image of printed electrode (Fig. 8a inset) revealed that electrodes had good bonding between each printed layer. This good attachment between the layers ensures proper flow of charges during electrochemical reactions. A solid-state supercapacitor made with the 3D printed AC electrodes and solid electrolyte was tested by galvanostatic charge-discharge studies. A typical GCD curve of the 3D printed supercapacitor is shown in Fig. 8b. As can be expected, this GCD plot is similar to those of typical supercapacitors. There is a small iR drop at the beginning of the discharge profile. The device capacitance and specific capacitance for KOH activated device are calculated from the GCD curves and were found to be 310.32 mF/cm² and 3.12 F/g at 2.5 mA respectively. These values of capacitance are comparable to or better than those of prior reported 3D printed solid-state supercapacitors using activated carbon-based electrodes [[31][34][35]] Areir et al, Tanwilaisiri et al]. This behavior from the GCD curve shows that there is a potential for these 3D printed CF activated electrodes to be used for energy devices. Upon further process optimization, devices with improved energy performance can be developed.

Nitrogen doped biochar carbon was synthesized from chicken feathers. A two-step customized design of pyrolysis reaction led to formation of highly graphitized carbon. Subsequent chemical activation using potassium hydroxide yielded activated carbon. XRD and Raman observations indicated increase in amorphous nature and degree of disorder of carbon after the activation process. KOH activation was effective in increasing the surface area of carbon from 1.75 m²/g to 515.896 m²/g. The biochar carbon consisted of highly discorded carbon with a total pore volume of 0.607 cc/g. SEM/TEM morphological analysis further confirmed the porous nano-patterned carbon surface. The synthesized activated carbon was employed to form 3D printed electrodes for a solid-state supercapacitor device. Preliminary observations showed a capacitance of 310.32 mF/cm² and specific capacitance of 3.12 F/g at 2.5 mA respectively.

Declaration of Competing Interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

AUTHOR INFORMATION

Corresponding Author

Vijaya K. Rangari, Department of Material Science and Engineering, Tuskegee University, Tuskegee, AL, 36088 USA; https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3962-1686

Telephone: 334-724-4875; Email: [email protected];

Author Contributions

Zaheeruddin Mohammed: Conceptualization, Methodology, Investigation, Data curation and analysis, Writing – original draft, Writing – review and editing. Shaik Jeelani: Supervision and Funding acquisition. Naga S. Korivi: Investigation, Writing – original draft, Writing- review & editing. Vijaya Rangari: Supervision, Writing- review & editing, and Funding acquisition.

Acknowledgment

The authors acknowledge the financial support of NSF-AL-EPSCoR #1655280, GRSP-Alabama EPSCoR, NSF-CREST# 1735971, and NSF-MRI Award #1531934.

Data availability

Data will be made available on request to Vijaya Rangari: [email protected]

Bakhta, S., Sadaoui, Z., Bouazizi, N., Samir, B., Allalou, O., Devouge-Boyer, C., Mignot, M. and Vieillard, J., 2022. Functional activated carbon: from synthesis to groundwater fluoride removal. RSC advances, 12(4), pp.2332–2348.
Ani, J.U., Akpomie, K.G., Okoro, U.C., Aneke, L.E., Onukwuli, O.D. and Ujam, O.T., 2020. Potentials of activated carbon produced from biomass materials for sequestration of dyes, heavy metals, and crude oil components from aqueous environment. Applied Water Science, 10(2), pp.1–11.
Shukla, S.K., Mushaiqri, A., Said, N.R., Al Subhi, H.M., Yoo, K. and Al Sadeq, H., 2020. Low-cost activated carbon production from organic waste and its utilization for wastewater treatment. Applied Water Science, 10(2), pp.1–9.
Acevedo, S., Giraldo, L. and Moreno-Piraján, J.C., 2020. Adsorption of CO2 on activated carbons prepared by chemical activation with cupric nitrate. ACS omega, 5(18), pp.10423–10432.
Pellerano, M., Pré, P., Kacem, M. and Delebarre, A., 2009. CO2 capture by adsorption on activated carbons using pressure modulation. Energy procedia, 1(1), pp.647–653.
Bora, M., Bhattacharjya, D. and Saikia, B.K., 2021. Coal-Derived Activated Carbon for Electrochemical Energy Storage: Status on Supercapacitor, Li-Ion Battery, and Li–S Battery Applications. Energy & Fuels, 35(22), pp.18285–18307.
Kumar, U., Goonetilleke, D., Gaikwad, V., Pramudita, J.C., Joshi, R.K., Sharma, N. and Sahajwalla, V., 2019. Activated carbon from e-waste plastics as a promising anode for sodium-ion batteries. ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering, 7(12), pp.10310–10322.
Dubey, P., Shrivastav, V., Maheshwari, P.H. and Sundriyal, S., 2020. Recent advances in biomass derived activated carbon electrodes for hybrid electrochemical capacitor applications: Challenges and opportunities. Carbon, 170, pp.1–29.
Senthil, C. and Lee, C.W., 2021. Biomass-derived biochar materials as sustainable energy sources for electrochemical energy storage devices. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 137, p.110464.
Gayathiri, M., Pulingam, T., Lee, K.T. and Sudesh, K., 2022. Activated carbon from biomass waste precursors: Factors affecting production and adsorption mechanism. Chemosphere, p.133764.
Kosheleva, Ramonna I., Athanasios C. Mitropoulos, and George Z. Kyzas. "Synthesis of activated carbon from food waste." Environmental Chemistry Letters 17, no. 1 (2019): 429–438.
Shehzad, A., Bashir, M.J., Sethupathi, S. and Lim, J.W., 2015. An overview of heavily polluted landfill leachate treatment using food waste as an alternative and renewable source of activated carbon. Process safety and environmental protection, 98, pp.309–318.
Adibfar, M., Kaghazchi, T., Asasian, N. and Soleimani, M., 2014. Conversion of poly (ethylene terephthalate) waste into activated carbon: chemical activation and characterization. Chemical Engineering & Technology, 37(6), pp.979–986.
Ariyadejwanich, P., Tanthapanichakoon, W., Nakagawa, K., Mukai, S.R. and Tamon, H., 2003. Preparation and characterization of mesoporous activated carbon from waste tires. Carbon, 41(1), pp.157–164.
Ehsani, A. and Parsimehr, H., 2020. Electrochemical energy storage electrodes from fruit biochar. Advances in Colloid and Interface Science, 284, p.102263.
Mohammed, Z., Jeelani, S. and Rangari, V., 2021. Low temperature plasma treatment of rice husk derived hybrid silica/carbon biochar using different gas sources. Materials Letters, 292, p.129678.
Madhu, R., Veeramani, V., Chen, S.M., Veerakumar, P., Liu, S.B. and Miyamoto, N., 2016. Functional porous carbon–ZnO nanocomposites for high-performance biosensors and energy storage applications. Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics, 18(24), pp.16466–16475.
Fu, M., Chen, W., Zhu, X., Yang, B. and Liu, Q., 2019. Crab shell derived multi-hierarchical carbon materials as a typical recycling of waste for high performance supercapacitors. Carbon, 141, pp.748–757.
Stepniak, I., Galinski, M., Nowacki, K., Wysokowski, M., Jakubowska, P., Bazhenov, V.V., Leisegang, T., Ehrlich, H. and Jesionowski, T., 2016. A novel chitosan/sponge chitin origin material as a membrane for supercapacitors–preparation and characterization. Rsc Advances, 6(5), pp.4007–4013.
Barone, J.R. and Schmidt, W.F., 2005. Polyethylene reinforced with keratin fibers obtained from chicken feathers. Composites Science and Technology, 65(2), pp.173–181.
Mazotto, A.M., Cedrola, S.M., de Souza, E.P., Couri, S. and Vermelho, A.B., 2022. Enhanced keratinase production by Bacillus subtilis amr using experimental optimization tools to obtain feather protein lysate for industrial applications. 3 Biotech, 12(4), pp.1–18.
Zoccola, M., Aluigi, A. and Tonin, C., 2009. Characterisation of keratin biomass from butchery and wool industry wastes. Journal of Molecular Structure, 938(1–3), pp.35–40.
Williams, C.M., Lee, C.G., Garlich, J.D. and Shih, J.C., 1991. Evaluation of a bacterial feather fermentation product, feather-lysate, as a feed protein. Poultry Science, 70(1), pp.85–94.
Singh, S.K., Prakash, H., Akhtar, M.J. and Kar, K.K., 2018. Lightweight and high-performance microwave absorbing heteroatom-doped carbon derived from chicken feather fibers. ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering, 6(4), pp.5381–5393.
Tesfaye, T., Sithole, B., Ramjugernath, D. and Chunilall, V., 2017. Valorisation of chicken feathers: Characterisation of physical properties and morphological structure. Journal of Cleaner Production, 149, pp.349–365.
Tesfaye, T., Sithole, B., Ramjugernath, D. and Mokhothu, T., 2018. Valorisation of chicken feathers: Characterisation of thermal, mechanical and electrical properties. Sustainable Chemistry and Pharmacy, 9, pp.27–34.
Zhao, Z., Wang, Y., Li, M. and Yang, R., 2015. High performance N-doped porous activated carbon based on chicken feather for supercapacitors and CO 2 capture. RSC Advances, 5(44), pp.34803–34811.
Senoz, E. and Wool, R.P., 2011. Hydrogen storage on pyrolyzed chicken feather fibers. International journal of hydrogen energy, 36(12), pp.7122–7127.
Mohammed, Zaheeruddin, Shaik Jeelani, and Vijaya Rangari. "Effective reinforcement of engineered sustainable biochar carbon for 3D printed polypropylene biocomposites." Composites Part C: Open Access 7 (2022): 100221.
Mohammed, Zaheeruddin, Shaik Jeelani, and Vijaya K. Rangari. "Effect of Low-Temperature Plasma Treatment on Starch-Based Biochar and Its Reinforcement for Three-Dimensional Printed Polypropylene Biocomposites." ACS Omega (2022).
Idrees, Mohanad, Syed Ahmed, Z. Mohammed, Naga S. Korivi, and Vijaya Rangari. "3D printed supercapacitor using porous carbon derived from packaging waste." Additive Manufacturing 36 (2020): 101525.
Hastuti, E., Subhan, A. and Auwala, A., 2021. Performance of carbon based on chicken feather with KOH activation as an anode for Li-ion batteries. Materials Today: Proceedings, 44, pp.3183–3187.
Wang, Q., Cao, Q., Wang, X., Jing, B., Kuang, H. and Zhou, L., 2013. A high-capacity carbon prepared from renewable chicken feather biopolymer for supercapacitors. Journal of Power Sources, 225, pp.101–107.
Areir, M., Xu, Y., Zhang, R., Harrison, D., Fyson, J. and Pei, E., 2017. A study of 3D printed active carbon electrode for the manufacture of electric double-layer capacitors. Journal of Manufacturing Processes, 25, pp.351–356.
Tanwilaisiri, A., Xu, Y., Zhang, R., Harrison, D., Fyson, J. and Areir, M., 2018. Design and fabrication of modular supercapacitors using 3D printing. Journal of Energy Storage, 16, pp.1–7.

No competing interests reported.

ScientificreportsSupplementary.docx

Download PDF

Version 1

posted

You are reading this latest preprint version

Synthesis and characterization of N-doped porous carbon from chicken feathers for 3D printed electrode applications

Status:

Version 1

Abstract

Figures

1. Introduction

2. Experimental

2.1. Materials

2.2. Carbon Synthesis

2.3. Activation

2.4. Characterization

2.5. Supercapacitor fabrication and testing

3. Results And Discussion

Conclusion

Declarations

References

Additional Declarations

Supplementary Files

Status:

Version 1