Social Disparity in Climate Change Perception and Related Coping Strategies: The Case of Haitian Farmers.

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-2249569/v1

Download PDF

Research Article

Social Disparity in Climate Change Perception and Related Coping Strategies: The Case of Haitian Farmers.

https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-2249569/v1

This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License

Version 1

posted

You are reading this latest preprint version

Climate change perception among farmers is a subject of considerable research since sufficient knowledge is essential to making effective adaptation decisions. However, some social disparities such as class and gender inequalities might undermine this perception and shape the adaptation decisions in developing countries. Thus, this study examined the social disparities in climate change perception and related coping strategies between male and female farmers by comparing two farming areas in Haiti. We further explored the differences in the climate change perception and adaptation strategies of male and female farmers in these areas. We collected data through fieldwork and a household survey of 670 farmers, of whom 75% were men. Consistent with the majority of existing sociology of science research, the results revealed that the poor and female farmers had a stronger climate change perception than did the rich and male farmers, respectively. The survey population generally adopted similar strategies to cope with climate change. However, the poor were more likely to rely on off-farm strategies, whereas the female farmers were more likely to use on-farm versus off-farm strategies. Although the female farmers had less education, land, and resources, in contrast to the male farmers, they exhibited greater overall awareness of climate change and engagement in finding new alternatives to cope with this threat. Our findings suggest that the empowerment of women can be an effective strategy for improving agricultural resilience in response to climate change in a developing country such as Haiti.

Social class

climate change

gender

coping strategies

Haiti

Climate change is a considerable threat to agricultural production in developing countries, and Haiti is one of the worst-affected countries. Agriculture is the largest sector of Haiti’s economy, accounting for 22% of the country’s gross domestic product and employing more than 80% of the total workforce (WB, 2019). Haiti is also one of the most disaster-prone countries in the Caribbean and Central America (Barton-Dock & Singh, 2015). During the last decade (2010–2020), the country experienced at least three climate-related disasters each year, causing substantial economic losses, especially in the agricultural sector. For example, in 2016, an El Niño–related drought and Hurricane Matthew destroyed 90% of cash crops and affected more than 2 million people (CRS, 2016). In 2017, Hurricanes Irma and Maria caused substantial flooding, and an El Niño–induced drought affected the principal food and cash crops in 2018. As a result of recurrent storms and droughts related to climate change, Haiti has one of the lowest food security levels in the world, with over half of the population undernourished and living below the poverty line (WFP, 2019), and 22% living in extreme poverty (WPC, 2022).

Studies have examined farmers’ perception of climate change and their coping behaviors during and immediately after an unusual and unfavorable situation caused by a disaster, with the aim of identifying moderators of the adverse effects of climate change on developing countries (Gandure, Walker, & Botha, 2013; Mulenga, Wineman, & Sitko, 2017; Wheeler, Zuo, & Bjornlund, 2013). However, Haiti has generally been overlooked as a research target because of data collection difficulties. A recent pioneer study adopting a focus group approach provided baseline information on Haitian farmers’ perception of the key risks to agricultural production as well as the main criteria influencing their decisions and coping strategies (Staub, Gilot, Pierre, Murray, & Koenig, 2020). The study revealed that farmers have serious concerns regarding the impact of climate hazards on their livelihood; however, they largely prioritize short-term solutions over long-term protective measures, which potentially increases their vulnerability over time. Another study examined the perception and coping behavior of Haitian farmers (Staub et al., 2020). However, because of limitations in terms of the study site and sample size (N = 104), the analysis could not explain how social disparities among the farmers guided their selection of long-term and short-term strategies.

Therefore, why some farmers tend to adopt more sustainable coping behaviors than others is a topic that merits further examination. In this study, we addressed this knowledge gap by considering Haitian farmers’ perception of climate change as well as the distinct coping behaviors that they adopt in response to this threat. We used the KoBoToolbox’s data collection app to conduct a social survey among 670 farmers in Anse-rouge and Dessalines—two municipalities considerably reliant on agriculture and located in Haiti’s Artibonite region—in April 2021 and October 2020, respectively, during the acute phase of the COVID-19 pandemic. Our structural equation analysis revealed that social class and gender shaped Haitian farmers’ perception of climate change. Poor and female farmers exhibited higher risk perception than rich and male farmers, respectively. Poor and male farmers tended to adapt to a drought by employing off-farm strategies; for example, seeking jobs in other sectors, thus leaving or leasing their lands. By contrast, rich and female farmers tended to improve their on-farm skills and strategies to minimize the negative impacts of the drought. Understanding the social disparity in Haitian farmers’ attitudes toward climate change and coping behaviors can clarify the target group of related policies in the Caribbean region.

Various studies have focused on farmers’ perception of and adaptation to climate change in developing countries (Alston, 2014; Amadou, Villamor, Attua, & Traoré, 2015; Bastakoti, Bharati, Bhattarai, & Wahid, 2017; Bastakoti, Gupta, Babel, & van Dijk, 2014; Deressa, Hassan, Ringler, Alemu, & Yesuf, 2008; Gandure et al., 2013). Some studies have argued that some social factors, such as gendered role and political and economic status, are that socially differentiate and generally shape individuals’ vulnerability and local adaptation (Huynh & Resurreccion, 2014; Marino & Ribot, 2012). Farmers' level of awareness is also influenced by socio-economic, institutional, and geographical factors within environmental communication network (Mustafa, Latif, Bashir, Shamsudin, & Daud, 2019). However, little is known regarding the role of socioeconomic status in the perception of and adaptation to climate change in developing economies. Furthermore, few studies have conducted gender analysis of farmers’ perception and adaptation practices to climate variability in the Haitian context.

To address these shortcomings, we developed a framework consisting of five theoretical variables: poor, female, climate risk perception, off-farm strategies, and on-farm strategies. In developing regions, the poor usually rely on agriculture for their livelihoods; this demographic is therefore highly vulnerable to the effects of climate change (Pörtner et al., 2022). As farmers and household managers, women might exhibit distinct coping behaviors to survive the effects of climate change. To elucidate the coping strategies of women and the poor, we subdivided these coping strategies in two specific categories: (1) off-farm strategies and (2) on-farm strategies. Off-farm strategies are a set of alternative measures adopted by farmers, mostly those who are poor, to adapt to local climate change. In the Haitian context, such farmers sell or abandon their agricultural plots and seek employment in other sectors. By contrast, on-farm strategies are related directly to farming activities; poor farmers are unlikely to adopt such strategies because of the financial and technical requirements, as well as the need for foreseeing the future and investing in equipment that does not yield immediate benefits.

2.1. Climate Change Perception and Coping Behavior of the Poor

Individuals of certain social strata are disproportionately affected by climate change (Sultana, 2014), especially in developing countries (Islam & Winkel, 2017). Developing countries with limited resources, poor infrastructure, and unstable institutions have little capacity to adapt and are highly vulnerable (Smit & Pilifosova, 2003). Relative to those of higher social strata, poor people, especially smallholder farmers, are more vulnerable and have less adaptive capacity to confront climate changes, unless they perceive the risk (Hertel & Rosch, 2010). Climate change perception in the context of agriculture is used to measure farmers’ beliefs that human activities have caused climate change, which poses a threat to their future (Myers, Maibach, Roser-Renouf, Akerlof, & Leiserowitz, 2013). Risk perception plays a fundamental role and therefore serves as a prerequisite for selecting an effective adaptation strategy (O'Connor, Bard, & Fisher, 1999; Weber, 2010; Zampaligré, Dossa, & Schlecht, 2014). In addition, a study revealed that the education level and farming experience are positively correlated with climate change perception and willingness to adopt mitigation strategies (Lin, 1991). The poor might be more sensitive than the rich in perceiving local climate change. If poor people have stronger climate change perception than do the rich, they would be more willing to adopt farming strategies to minimize their losses. Therefore, we proposed the following hypotheses:

Poor farmers exhibit stronger risk perception regarding climate change than would rich farmers.

Poor farmers who have a strong perception of climate change are more likely to adopt on-farm strategies than would rich farmers.

2.2. Climate change through a gender lens

A study revealed that gender rules shape climate change adaptation (Codjoe, Atidoh, & Burkett, 2012); this is particularly relevant because women in most developing economies are increasingly becoming heads of farm households (Nelson, 2010). Assessing the gender dimensions of climate change perception can elucidate the challenges faced by Haitian male and female farmers as they cope with climate-related disasters and aim to maximize resilience on their farms. As previously discussed, assessment of gender dimensions can also highlight the disparities in climate change knowledge between men and women as well as their related experiences (Ludgate, 2016). In this context, considering the gender dimensions of climate change perception as well as coping strategies might yield insightful findings (Denton, 2002; Jin, Wang, & Gao, 2015). One study reported that women exhibit less confidence in their scientific knowledge and abilities than men do (Jacobs & Simpkins, 2005); in the context of Haiti, this disparity could affect the manner in which female farmers perceive and adjust to climatic variability. Another study revealed that women underestimate their climate change knowledge more than men do (McCright, 2010). These studies suggest that women do not necessarily trust science as a means of solving their problems, which drives a high level of skepticism regarding science and technology. By contrast, studies have indicated that women have a higher tendency than men to address environmental issues, and women’s attitudes toward environmental quality are stronger than those of men in the developed world (Diamantopoulos, Schlegelmilch, Sinkovics, & Bohlen, 2003; Smith Jr, Liu, Safi, & Chief, 2014). One study conducted in Bangladesh revealed that women have a higher level of environmental awareness than their male counterparts (Atiqul Haq, 2013). Another similar study conducted in Ethiopia reported that female Ethiopians are more likely than men to be aware of climate change (Abegaz & Wims, 2015). On the basis of focus group findings, another study also reported that Haitian female farmers have a higher level of climate change perception than their male counterparts (Staub et al., 2020). Accordingly, we proposed the following hypothesis:

Female Haitian farmers exhibit stronger climate change perception than their male counterparts

Adapting to climate change has long been a challenge for farmers in developing nations, especially for the women (Nightingale, 2009). Some evidence has suggested that female-headed households are typically under-resourced and have lower literacy rates than male-headed households, which limits their capability to grow crops and adapt to climate change (Nabikolo, Bashaasha, Mangheni, & Majaliwa, 2012). Moreover, male-headed households have a higher likelihood of implementing high-capital strategies in response to climate change than female-headed households (Deressa et al., 2008). By contrast, studies have revealed that women are key actors in adjustment to climate variability. For example, female farmers in Rwanda produce over 600 varieties of beans, and in Peru, they plant more than 60 varieties of cassava; both of these represent cropping system adaptation strategies for countering climate change (Women—Users, 1999). These strategies have improved the resilience of cropping systems to various climatic parameters, including soil physical conditions. A study conducted in Zimbabwe revealed that, to cope with the effects of a drought, women have adopted diverse adaptation practices such as reducing the number of daily meals, buying and storing food items for consumption during dry periods, and cultivating drought-resistant crop varieties (Ncube, Mangwaya, & Ogundeji, 2018). A similar study performed in Central Ghana found that gender plays a key role in adaptation practices adopted by the study communities; these practices included changing planting dates, using drought-tolerant hybrids, and obtaining income from property sales (Jamal et al., 2021). Although the aforementioned study was unable to reconcile the debate on the gender role of farmers under the impact of climate change, it highlighted the pathways of resilience for female farmers. We therefore proposed the following hypothesis:

Female farmers engage more than male farmers in farming strategies to improve their productivity. Moreover, female farmers with strong perception of climate change adopt more farming strategies than their male counterparts.

3.1. Research site

Although scholars have suggested conducting social surveys can improve agricultural policies in Haiti, few efforts have been made in this regard. In this study, we adopted this novel survey approach in Dessalines (commonly referred to as Marchand-Dessalines) and Anse-rouge, which are two municipalities in Haiti’s Artibonite region where food crops are the main source of residents’ livelihoods. Dessalines is an urbanized community with 412,906 residents, with an area of 474.4 km², whereas Anse-rouge has a total population of 43,395 residents in an area of 434.4 km² as of 2015.

Anse-rouge and Dessalines were selected for a comparison of climate change risks. In both environmental and social aspects, Anse-rouge is much more vulnerable than Dessalines. According to precipitation records from the WorldClim Database (Fick & Hijmans, 2017), Anse-rouge and Dessalines receive approximately 125 mm and 128 mm of annual precipitation, respectively; the climate conditions of the two municipalities seem similar. Topographically, both municipalities are mainly characterized by flat land and hills, but Anse-rouge specifically features coastal plains and is inhabited by smallholder farmers.

3.2. Data collection

We used KoBoToolbox’s data collection app to collect data in Anse-rouge and Dessalines in April 2021 and October 2020, respectively. Scholars have argued that coping with a drought involves a two-step process (Habiba, Shaw, & Takeuchi, 2012). The first step is perceiving that a drought is occurring, and the second step is responding to its various effects through adaptation and mitigation. Our questionnaire was used to extend the framework and to investigate the relationship between climate change perception and coping strategies, and it contained three sections: first, respondents’ demographic characteristics were collected; second, their perception of local climate change risks and their understanding of climate change impact were examined; and third, the strategies they adopted to build resilience were investigated.

3.3. Descriptive statistics

Table 1 presents a statistical description of our sample (N = 670). As one of our key explanatory variables, gender was a dummy variable coded as female = 1 and male = 0. The sample comprised 503 (75%) male farmers and 167 female farmers. To measure social class (another independent variable), we asked respondents to select one of the following: upper class, upper-middle class, middle class, or working class. However, the class structure in the two target municipalities differed considerably; in Anse-rouge, all respondents selected either middle class or working class. Poor class was defined as a dummy variable, referring to the working class in Anse-rouge and the working class and the middle class in Dessalines. In total, 72.46% of the female respondents were in the poor class, which is significantly higher than the percentage of men in this class (63.42%).

Table 1

Descriptive statistics
Variables	Male	Female	t-test/chi square test
	mean/percentage	mean/percentage
Dependent variables
Off-farm strategies	1.67	1.77	-1.29
On-farm strategies	1.42	1.72	-2.93**
Independent variable
Poor	63.42	72.46	4.54*
Mediators
Perception of climate change	2.79	3.21	-4.11***
Control variables
Year of residence	24.27	23.28	1.00
Crop land size	2.33	2.08	0.25
Household size	4.74	4.64	1.00
Education year	5.25	4.79	0.46
Village: Dessalines	57.46	61.68	0.92
Total samples	503	167
p < .01 p < .05 **p < .001
Note: 0/1: Chi-square test but shows the proportion of 1.

Our key dependent variables were off-farm strategies and on-farm strategies. Off-farm strategies were measured using three questions: whether interviewees took off-farm jobs, leased their land, or migrated to a different area. On-farm strategies were also measured using three questions: whether interviewees changed their farming calendar, reduced their cultivation, or changed their irrigation system. For each strategy type, we calculated the number of strategies adopted (range: 0–3). For both types of strategies, the female farmers had mean scores of approximately 1.7, whereas the scores of the male farmers were 1.67 for off-farm strategies and 1.42 for on-farm strategies (Table 1). Thus, the female farmers adopted more farming strategies than did their male counterparts.

Climate change perception, as the mediator in this study, was measured using an aggregate index of five variables; respondents indicated whether they perceived any of the following: decline in rainfall, delay in rainfall, early end to the rainy season, increase in number of hot days, and late arrival of rainy season. Thus, the range of climate change perception was 0–5; with a score of 3.21, the female farmers had greater awareness of climate change than their male counterparts (score = 2.79).

We adopted several control variables in this study, namely years of residence, crop land size, household size, years of education, and town of residence (Dessalines = 1 and Anse-rouge = 0). None of the control variables differed significantly between the men and women.

[Table 1]

3.4. Analytical strategy

To elucidate the relationship among gender, class, climate change perception, and coping strategies and to efficiently test the hypotheses, we conducted structural equation modeling (SEM) using Mplus 7 after completing data management in Stata 15. SEM is particularly appropriate for this study because it enables the testing of models with multiple dependent variables and the identification of the direct and indirect effects among key independent variables simultaneously. After controlling for years of residence, crop land size, household size, years of education, and town of residence, we examined the effects of gender and class on off-farm and on-farm strategies and their indirect effects through the mediator of climate change perception.

Our model results are illustrated in Fig. 1. For clarity, we have provided the coefficient values on the lines connecting female gender, poor class, climate change perception, and dependent variables; we have also used a dashed line to represent nonsignificant effects. Moreover, for simplicity, Fig. 1 does not present the effects of control variables; these are addressed in Appendix A. The root mean square error of approximation and the standardized root mean square residual values for the model were 0.041 and 0.096, respectively, with a value of < 0.08 being acceptable (Hu & Bentler, 1999). Moreover, the comparative fit index of our model was 0.903, and the Tucker–Lewis index was 0.767, with a value of > 0.9 or 0.95 being acceptable (Hu & Bentler, 1999). Most of the aforementioned model fit indices suggested that our model fit was acceptable. We also reviewed the modification indices in Mplus 7 to determine whether we missed any key relationships in the model; the result suggested that the correlation among years of education, town of residence, and poor class may improve the model fit. However, we did not include them in our model structure because our main results remained the same.

Finally, both poor class and female gender had positive effects on climate change perception, with this perception only affecting on-farm strategies; thus, H1 and H2 were supported. When the mediating effect of perception was not considered, the results revealed that the poor adopted more off-farm strategies than did the rich; by contrast, no difference was observed between the poor and rich in on-farm strategies; thus, H3 was supported. Moreover, the female farmers adopted more on-farm strategies than did their male counterparts; no gender difference was observed in off-farm strategies. Thus, our results supported H4.

We also conducted path analysis to determine the direct and indirect effects of the variables under study (Table 2). Our results indicated that the poor class only had a direct effect on off-farm strategies, whereas it affected on-farm strategies by increasing climate change perception. That is, climate change perception is a full mediator of the relation between social class and on-farm strategies, thus supporting H3. By contrast, gender had no direct or indirect effect on off-farm strategies; however, female gender had a positive effect on on-farm strategies in direct and indirect pathways, thus supporting H4.

Table 2

Total, direct, and indirect effect of poor class and female gender on strategies
	Off-farm strategies			On-farm strategies
	Total	Direct	Indirect	Total	Direct	Indirect
Poor	0.355***	0.362***	-0.008	0.066	-0.085	0.150***
Female	0.072	0.076	-0.003	0.248**	0.181*	0.067**
Appendix A

[Table 2]

Research has revealed that gender and social class intersect to shape the ability of Indian women to access agricultural resources (e.g., irrigation water and credit) to cope with the impact of climate change (Ahmed & Fajber, 2009). Although we included interaction terms in the models, we did not obtain significant results. Therefore, we posit that gender and class were two independent determinants of the climate change perception and adaptive strategies of the Haitian farmers in our sites.

In this study, we examined the social disparities in the climate change perception and related coping strategies of male and female farmers in two farming regions in Haiti. We further explored the distinctions in the climate change perception and consequent adaptation strategies of male and female farmers. Our findings highlight class and gender differences in climate change perception and the choice of adaptation strategies. First, we found that poor farmers are more likely than wealthier ones to be concerned about climate change. This result generally support results from a similar research on households’ perceptions and socio-economic determinants of climate change awareness in Malaysia (Ehsan, Begum, Maulud, & Yaseen, 2022), which indicates that the low-income group household showed higher awareness of climate change than high income group does. Second, we also found that women’s environmental concerns and attitudes are much stronger than those of men. This result also supports similar studies on gender and climate change adaptation, which indicate that women express more concern than do men about local climatic issues (Diamantopoulos et al., 2003; Hunter, Hatch, & Johnson, 2004; McCright, 2010; Smith Jr et al., 2014). On contrary, the findings contradict (Shrestha & Baral, 2018), who argued that males had higher hazard awareness compared to females. These findings in Haiti are also consistent with those of previous studies in developing countries in Southeast Asia (Bastakoti et al., 2017; Bastakoti et al., 2014; Lebel et al., 2009) and in Africa, especially in Ghana (Jamal et al., 2021; Mensah, Vlek, & Fosu-Mensah, 2020; Owusu, Nursey-Bray, & Rudd, 2019), and they confirm that gender and class are key determinants of climate change perception (Campbell, Mitchell, & Blackett, 2009; Mishra & Pede, 2017; Owusu et al., 2019). In this study, the female farmers not only exhibited higher climate change perception than their counterparts but also played a key role in adaptation practices, for example, by displaying greater interest in on-farm strategies.

This study offers diverse contributions to the field. First, this study contributes to the academic understanding of the Caribbean farmers, especially those located in Haiti, a group facing extreme climate change impact, with a focus on the social inequality in this group, as well as their perception and coping strategies, especially among women and the poor. Second, this is the first study to successfully employ a new survey method in two agricultural sites in Haiti, and this evaluation method can serve as a pretest in future studies at the national level. Third, from the theoretical perspective, studies have rarely examined how both class and gender shape climate change perception and related coping behaviors in the same study. Moreover, we divided the coping strategies into off-farm and on-farm strategies to elucidate the heterogeneity among farmers, which has also been seldom investigated in related studies. Our results indicate that the poor farmers were more likely than their rich counterparts to use off-farm strategies, and the female farmers exhibited greater interest in on-farm strategies than the male farmers. Regarding off-farm strategies, most of the poor farmers relied on off-farm jobs to cope with the adverse conditions caused by climate change. For such farmers, off-farm jobs can help supplement the household income and are a more reliable income stream than farm returns. A related study indicated that male farmers are more likely than female farmers to adapt to climate change by implementing investment strategies (Deressa et al., 2008). By contrast, our results indicate that a higher proportion of the women than the men were aware of local climate change and sought alternative on-farm strategies. Our findings highlight not only the pathway from social class and gender to on-farm strategies through climate change perception but also that the effect of this moderator differs by social class and gender. Climate change perception has only a slight effect on the coping behavior of the poor, whereas it has a significant effect on female farmers’ decision to adopt on-farm strategies.

Nonetheless, our study has some limitations. First, we attempted to employ random sampling based on a geographic grid, but we faced difficulties accessing some areas because of safety concerns. In these areas, the security issues substantially undermined the response rate of female farmers as well as poor farmers. Second, the design of the questionnaire was revised during the survey because the rates of land fallowing and off-farm migration in response to the drought were higher than expected. We defined these responses to climate change as “coping strategies,” rather than as strategies for “adaptation” or “resilience.” We are designing the next wave of surveys to consider the adaptive outcomes of farmers who used these different strategies; this is also a worthwhile direction for future research. Although we applied the gender ratio of the official census to weight the statistics, a more effective strategy would be to intentionally increase the number of female interviewees, which we intend to do in the next wave of surveys. Instead of focusing on female farmers, future research can examine the social disparities present in the climate change beliefs and attitudes of women in the nonagricultural sector; a target group can be the small traders commonly called Madan Sara, who are regarded as a key player in the marketing of agricultural products in Haiti (Assouline & Dicko, 2019). The aforementioned difficulties, however, also reflect the rarity and value of the present novel survey method in Haiti, which has been neglected in regional climate change literature for decades.

In terms of policy implications, our study highlights the need for designing gender-sensitive agricultural policies and programs involving adaptation and mitigation measures tailored to local contexts. Adaptive strategies for climate change can succeed only if they empower women given their close ties to the environment and their roles in natural resource management. Female farmers can serve as agents of change, whose knowledge and skills can strengthen resilience to climate disasters. Policy makers should develop strategies to promote sustainable and climate-resilient agriculture. This approach may include gender-sensitive information delivery and capacity-building approaches as well as training in basic entrepreneurship and drought risk management skills in the local context. Water reservoirs as a part of sustainable energy systems can also be constructed to provide farmers with affordable access to irrigation. Finally, Haitian women should participate in the governance of public goods, such as water reservoirs; their input in diverse areas may help improve agricultural production. A gender-sensitive approach involving community knowledge and practices can increase the adaptive capacity of women, especially those who are poor, and help men and children in families to counter the local impact of global climate change.

Acknowledgment

The work presented in this paper was supported and funded by the Research Center Future Earth of National Taiwan University and the Center for Sustainability Science at Academia Sinica. We appreciate the data management and statistical assistance provided by Mr. Lee Chun-Yin of Academia Sinica, Taiwan.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare no competing interests.

Abegaz, D. M., & Wims, P. (2015). Extension agents' awareness of climate change in Ethiopia. The Journal of Agricultural Education and Extension, 21(5), 479–495.
Ahmed, S., & Fajber, E. (2009). Engendering adaptation to climate variability in Gujarat, India. Gender & Development, 17(1), 33–50.
Alston, M. (2014). Gender mainstreaming and climate change. Paper presented at the Women's Studies International Forum.
Amadou, M., Villamor, G., Attua, E., & Traoré, S. (2015). Comparing farmers’ perception of climate change and variability with historical climate data in the Upper East Region of Ghana. Ghana Journal of Geography, 7(1), 47–74.
Assouline, N., & Dicko, T. F. (2019). Agricultural Financing in Haiti: Diagnosis and Recommendations.
Atiqul Haq, S. M. (2013). Nexus between perception, environment and fertility: A study on indigenous people in Bangladesh. Sustainable Development, 21(6), 372–384.
Barton-Dock, M., & Singh, R. (2015). Haiti: Toward a New Narrative–Systematic Country Diagnostic, 2015. Washington DC: the World Bank.
Bastakoti, R. C., Bharati, L., Bhattarai, U., & Wahid, S. M. (2017). Agriculture under changing climate conditions and adaptation options in the Koshi Basin. Climate and Development, 9(7), 634–648.
Bastakoti, R. C., Gupta, J., Babel, M. S., & van Dijk, M. P. (2014). Climate risks and adaptation strategies in the Lower Mekong River basin. Regional Environmental Change, 14(1), 207–219.
Campbell, B., Mitchell, S., & Blackett, M. (2009). Responding to climate change in Vietnam. Opportunities for improving gender equality. Oxfam–UNDP Vietnam. Hanoi. http://www.oxfam.org.uk/resources/policy/climate_change/climate-change-gender-equalityvietnam. html.
Codjoe, S. N. A., Atidoh, L. K., & Burkett, V. (2012). Gender and occupational perspectives on adaptation to climate extremes in the Afram Plains of Ghana. Climatic Change, 110(1), 431–454.
CRS, C. R. S. (2016). El Niño and its human toll. Retrieved from https://www.crs.org/sites/default/files/el-nino-summary.pdf
Denton, F. (2002). Climate change vulnerability, impacts, and adaptation: Why does gender matter? Gender & Development, 10(2), 10–20.
Deressa, T. T., Hassan, R. M., Ringler, C., Alemu, T., & Yesuf, M. (2008). Analysis of the determinants of farmers' choice of adaptation methods and perceptions of climate change in the Nile Basin of Ethiopia [in Amharic]. Retrieved from
Diamantopoulos, A., Schlegelmilch, B. B., Sinkovics, R. R., & Bohlen, G. M. (2003). Can socio-demographics still play a role in profiling green consumers? A review of the evidence and an empirical investigation. Journal of Business research, 56(6), 465–480.
Ehsan, S., Begum, R. A., Maulud, K. N. A., & Yaseen, Z. M. (2022). Households’ perceptions and socio-economic determinants of climate change awareness: Evidence from Selangor Coast Malaysia. Journal of environmental management, 316, 115261.
Fick, S. E., & Hijmans, R. J. (2017). WorldClim 2: new 1-km spatial resolution climate surfaces for global land areas. International journal of climatology, 37(12), 4302–4315.
Gandure, S., Walker, S., & Botha, J. (2013). Farmers' perceptions of adaptation to climate change and water stress in a South African rural community. Environmental Development, 5, 39–53.
Habiba, U., Shaw, R., & Takeuchi, Y. (2012). Farmer's perception and adaptation practices to cope with drought: Perspectives from Northwestern Bangladesh. International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction, 1, 72–84.
Hertel, T. W., & Rosch, S. D. (2010). Climate change, agriculture, and poverty. Applied economic perspectives and policy, 32(3), 355–385.
Hu, L. t., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural equation modeling: a multidisciplinary journal, 6(1), 1–55.
Hunter, L. M., Hatch, A., & Johnson, A. (2004). Cross-national gender variation in environmental behaviors. Social science quarterly, 85(3), 677–694.
Huynh, P. T., & Resurreccion, B. P. (2014). Women's differentiated vulnerability and adaptations to climate-related agricultural water scarcity in rural Central Vietnam. Climate and Development, 6(3), 226–237.
Islam, N., & Winkel, J. (2017). Climate change and social inequality.
Jacobs, J. E., & Simpkins, S. D. (2005). Leaks in the pipeline to math, science, and technology careers: Jossey-Bass San Francisco, CA.
Jamal, A. M., Antwi-Agyei, P., Baffour-Ata, F., Nkiaka, E., Antwi, K., & Gbordzor, A. (2021). Gendered perceptions and adaptation practices of smallholder cocoa farmers to climate variability in the Central Region of Ghana. Environmental Challenges, 5, 100293.
Jin, J., Wang, X., & Gao, Y. (2015). Gender differences in farmers' responses to climate change adaptation in Yongqiao District, China. Science of the Total Environment, 538, 942–948.
Lebel, L., Sinh, B. T., Garden, P., Hien, B. V., Subsin, N., Tuan, L. A., & Vinh, N. T. P. (2009). Risk reduction or redistribution? Flood management in the Mekong region. Asian Journal of Environment and Disaster Management, 1(1), 23–39.
Lin, J. Y. (1991). Education and innovation adoption in agriculture: evidence from hybrid rice in China. American Journal of Agricultural Economics, 73(3), 713–723.
Ludgate, N. (2016). Moser Gender Analysis Framework Retrieved from https://ingenaes.illinois.edu/wp-content/uploads/ING-Info-Sheet-2016_09-3-Moser-Triple-Role-Framework-Ludgate.pdf
Marino, E., & Ribot, J. (2012). Special issue introduction: adding insult to injury: climate change and the inequities of climate intervention. In (Vol. 22, pp. 323–328): Elsevier.
McCright, A. M. (2010). The effects of gender on climate change knowledge and concern in the American public. Population and Environment, 32(1), 66–87.
Mensah, M., Vlek, P. L., & Fosu-Mensah, B. Y. (2020). Gender and climate change linkages in the semi-arid region of Ghana. GeoJournal, 1–14.
Mishra, A. K., & Pede, V. O. (2017). Perception of climate change and adaptation strategies in Vietnam: are there intra-household gender differences? International Journal of Climate Change Strategies and Management.
Mulenga, B. P., Wineman, A., & Sitko, N. J. (2017). Climate trends and farmers’ perceptions of climate change in Zambia. Environmental management, 59(2), 291–306.
Mustafa, G., Latif, I. A., Bashir, M. K., Shamsudin, M. N., & Daud, W. M. N. W. (2019). Determinants of farmers' awareness of climate change. Applied Environmental Education & Communication, 18(3), 219–233.
Myers, T. A., Maibach, E. W., Roser-Renouf, C., Akerlof, K., & Leiserowitz, A. A. (2013). The relationship between personal experience and belief in the reality of global warming. Nature climate change, 3(4), 343–347.
Nabikolo, D., Bashaasha, B., Mangheni, M., & Majaliwa, J. (2012). Determinants of climate change adaptation among male and female headed farm households in eastern Uganda. African Crop Science Journal, 20, 203–212.
Ncube, A., Mangwaya, P. T., & Ogundeji, A. A. (2018). Assessing vulnerability and coping capacities of rural women to drought: A case study of Zvishavane district, Zimbabwe. International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction, 28, 69–79.
Nelson, V. (2010). Climate change and gender: what role for agricultural research among smallholder farmers in Africa? CIAT Working Document.
Nightingale, A. (2009). Warming up the climate change debate: A challenge to policy based on adaptation. Journal of Forest and Livelihood, 8(1), 84–89.
O'Connor, R. E., Bard, R. J., & Fisher, A. (1999). Risk perceptions, general environmental beliefs, and willingness to address climate change. Risk analysis, 19(3), 461–471.
Owusu, M., Nursey-Bray, M., & Rudd, D. (2019). Gendered perception and vulnerability to climate change in urban slum communities in Accra, Ghana. Regional Environmental Change, 19(1), 13–25.
Pörtner, H. O., Roberts, D. C., Adams, H., Adler, C., Aldunce, P., Ali, E.,.. . Biesbroek, R. (2022). Climate change 2022: impacts, adaptation and vulnerability.
Shrestha, A., & Baral, S. (2018). Socioeconomic factors affecting awareness and adaption of climate change: A Case Study of Banke District Nepal. Earth Science Malaysia, 2(2), 20–24.
Smit, B., & Pilifosova, O. (2003). Adaptation to climate change in the context of sustainable development and equity. Sustainable Development, 8(9), 9.
Smith Jr, W. J., Liu, Z., Safi, A. S., & Chief, K. (2014). Climate change perception, observation and policy support in rural Nevada: A comparative analysis of Native Americans, non-native ranchers and farmers and mainstream America. Environmental Science & Policy, 42, 101–122.
Staub, C., Gilot, A., Pierre, M., Murray, G., & Koenig, R. (2020). Coping with climatic shocks: local perspectives from Haiti’s rural mountain regions. Population and Environment, 42(2), 146–158.
Sultana, F. (2014). Gendering climate change: Geographical insights. The Professional Geographer, 66(3), 372–381.
WB, W. B. (2019). World Bank to Strengthen Human Capital and Climate Resilience in Haiti. Retrieved from https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2019/05/17/world-bank-to-strengthen-human-capital-and-climate-resilience-in-haiti
Weber, E. U. (2010). What shapes perceptions of climate change? Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Climate Change, 1(3), 332–342.
WFP, W. F. P. (2019). WFP Haiti Country Brief, April 2019. Retrieved from https://reliefweb.int/report/haiti/wfp-haiti-country-brief-april-2019
Wheeler, S., Zuo, A., & Bjornlund, H. (2013). Farmers’ climate change beliefs and adaptation strategies for a water scarce future in Australia. Global Environmental Change, 23(2), 537–547.
Women—Users, F. (1999). Preservers and Managers of Agrobiodiversity. FAO: Rome, Italy, 1–4.
WPC, W. P. C. (2022). The world poverty clock by world data lab. Retrieved from https://worldpoverty.io/map
Zampaligré, N., Dossa, L. H., & Schlecht, E. (2014). Climate change and variability: perception and adaptation strategies of pastoralists and agro-pastoralists across different zones of Burkina Faso. Regional Environmental Change, 14(2), 769–783.

No competing interests reported.

AppendixA.docx

Download PDF

Version 1

posted

You are reading this latest preprint version

Social Disparity in Climate Change Perception and Related Coping Strategies: The Case of Haitian Farmers.

Status:

Version 1

Abstract

Figures

1. Introduction

2. Theoretical Model

2.1. Climate Change Perception and Coping Behavior of the Poor

2.2. Climate change through a gender lens

3. Data, Methods, And Research Area

3.1. Research site

3.2. Data collection

3.3. Descriptive statistics

3.4. Analytical strategy

4. Results

5. Discussion And Conclusion

Declarations

References

Additional Declarations

Supplementary Files

Status:

Version 1